Практикум по переводу с английского
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Text DIVERSITY OF LANGUAGES (1) The problem I propose to discuss is rather a hard nut to crack. (2) Why does homo sapiens, whose digestive track functions in precisely the same complicated ways the world over, whose biochemical fabric and genetic potential are essentially common in all peoples and at every stage of social evolution — why does this unified mammalian species not use one common language? (3) It inhales, for its life processes, one chemical element and dies if deprived of it. (4) It makes do with the same number of teeth and vertebrae. (5) In the light of anatomical and neurophysiological universals, a unitary language solution would be readily understandable. (6) But there is also another "natural" model. (7) A deaf, non-literate observer approaching the planet from outside and reporting on crucial aspects of human appearance and behaviour, would conclude with some confidence that men speak a small number of different, though probably related, tongues. (8) He would guess at a figure of the order of half a dozen with 26  perhaps a cluster of dialects or pidgins. (9) This number would be persuasively concordant with other major parameters of human diversity. (10) Why, then, this mystery of Babel? Text Analysis (1) What is the meaning of the verb "to propose" when followed by an infinitive? What is the figurative meaning of the idiom "a hard nut to crack"? (2) What is "homo sapiens"? What is the meaning of "fabric" in this context? Who is the author of the "Origin of species"? What is a mammalian? In what sense is man referred to here as "unified"? (3) Is there any difference in meaning between "to breathe" and "to inhale"? What chemical element is meant here? What does the elliptical phrase "if deprived" stand for? (4) What is "to make do with smth."? Is the form 'Vertebrae" plural or singular? Is there anything in common between the spine and vertebrae? (5) What is a "universal"? How can the phrase "a unitary language solution" be paraphrased to make its sense more explicit? Does "understandable" here mean "something that can be understood" or "something that seems quite natural"? (6) Why is the word "natural" written within inverted commas? How can the sentence be paraphrased to make the sense of "natural" in the sentence more explicit? (7) Why should the observer be deaf and non-literate to make a wrong conclusion about the number of languages on the earth? What does "outside" mean here? What is the meaning of "crucial"? Is there any difference between "a language" and "a tongue" as used in this text? (8) Does the phrase "of the order of imply an exact or an approximate number? What is a "pidgin"? In what way does a pidgin differ from a dialect? (9) What is the origin of "persuasive"? Does "to be concordant" mean "to coincide" or "to correspond"? What is a "parameter"? How can the phrase "human diversity" be paraphrased? (10) What is the Tour of Babel? What is the figurative sense of "Babel"? Why is Babel spoken of here as a kind of mystery? Problem-Solving Exercises A. Types of Equivalents I. Find the words and word combinations in the text which have permanent Russian equivalents. What part of the English vocabulary do such words belong to? 27 II. What equivalents can you suggest to the word "fabric" (sentence 2)? Which of them would you choose while translating this sentence? III. Should word-for-word translation be used in rendering the English phrases "social evolution" and "mammalian species" (sentence 2)? If not, what syntactical transformations would you suggest? IV. What kind of equivalent should be used to translate the English idiom "a hard nut to crack" (sentence 1)? V. Suggest an occasion! Russian substitute for the word "unified" in sen- tence (2) and explain your solution. VI. Make a word-for-word translation of sentence (3) and then make it syntactically more acceptable by changing the word order. VII. Can any of the regular equivalents of the word "solution" fit the context of sentence (5)? If not, what can serve as an occasional substitute? VIII. Make your choice between the permanent equivalent to the English "deaf" (sentence 7) — глухой and the occasional substitute не воспринимающий звуков. Give your reasons. Suggest a proper substitute for the word "non-literate". IX. What method would you resort to in order to produce a substitute for the words "pidgins" in sentence (8) and "homo sapiens" in sentence (2)? X. Use an explanation as an occasional substitute for the phrase "human di- versity" in sentence (9). B. Other Translation Problems XI. Are there any reasons to prefer one of the Russian aspective forms to the other as the substitute for the word "to discuss" in sentence (1) обсудить vs. обсуждать, рассмотреть vs. рассматривать. XII. Discuss the pros and cons of the following Russian substitutes for the term "homo sapiens" in sentence (2): гомо сапиенс, хомо сапиенс, человек разумный. XIII. While translating sentence (4) would you choose the Russian verb обходиться or иметь as the substitute for the English "to make do with"? Or would you suggest something else? XIV. Which of the following Russian words may serve as a substitute for the English "unitary" in sentence (5): унитарный, единый, единственный? XV. Can the word "universals" in sentence (5) be translated into Russian as универсалии or would you prefer something like общность, единство, etc.? XVI. What errors can you find in the following translation of sentence (5), if any? В свете анатомических и нейрофизиологических универсалий 28 существование единого языка было бы вполне понятным. XVII. What would you prefer for "there is" in sentence (6) существует, имеется or есть? Give your reasons. XVIII. Why is the Russian word природный a wrong substitute for the English "natural" in sentence (6)? What is the difference between the words природный, натуральный and естественный? XIX. Try to show in your Russian translation of sentence (7) the presence of the definite article before the word "planet". Which of the following will you choose — земля, планета, наша планета? XX. Which of the following Russian words would you prefer as the equivalent to the word "aspects" in sentence (7): аспекты, черты, особенности? XXI. Which of the Russian substitutes would you prefer for the English "from outside" in sentence (7): извне, из космоса, со стороны? XXII. Is the meaning of "reporting" in sentence (7) closer to the meaning of the Russian сообщать, докладывать or заключать (приходить к выводу)? XXIII. Can the regular equivalent of the English verb "to guess" — догадываться be used in translating sentence (8)? XXIV. Would you use the Russian word полдюжины as a substitute for the English 'Ъа1Г a dozen" in sentence (8) or would you decide in favour of полдесятка, несколько or пять-шесть? XXV. Would you be satisfied with translating "pidgins" in sentence (8) as пиджин or do you think it necessary to add the word языки? Or may be you will opt for смешанные языки? XXVI. Can the usual Russian equivalents of the English "duster" in sentence (8) — гроздь, пучок, связка, кисть be applied to such notions as язык or диалект? XXVII. Would you translate "human diversity" in sentence (9) as человеческое разнообразие, различие между людьми? Or can you suggest something else? XXVIII. Which of the following is a good substitute for the word "Babel" in sentence (10): Бейбл, Вавилон, Вавилонское столпотворение языков? XXIX. Translate the word "mystery" in sentence (10) first with a Russian noun and then with an adjective. Which do you find more suitable? XXX. Would you use an elliptical sentence in Russian to translate sentence (10) or will you fill in the missing words? CHAPTER 4. ASPECTS OF TRANSLATING PROCESS* Basic Assumptions Description of the translating process is one of the major tasks of the translation theory. Here we deal with the dynamic aspects of translation trying to understand how the translator performs the transfer operation from ST to TT. Psychologically viewed, the translating process must needs include two mental processes - understanding and verbalization. First, the translator understands the contents of ST, that is, reduces the information it contains to his own mental program, and then he develops this program into TT. The problem is that these mental processes are not directly observable and we do not know much of what that program is and how the reduction and development operations are performed. That is why the translating process has to be described in some indirect way. The translation theory achieves this aim by postulating a number of translation models. A model is a conventional representation of the translating process describing mental operations by which the source text or some part of it may be translated, irrespective of whether these operations are actually performed by the translator. It may describe the translating process either in a general form or by listing a number of specific operations (or transformations) through which the process can, in part, be realized. Translation models can be oriented either toward the situation reflected in the ST contents or toward the meaningful components of the ST contents. The existing models of the translating process are, in fact, based on the same assumptions which we considered in discussing the problem of equivalence, namely, the s i t u a t i о n a 1 (or referential) model is based on the identity of the situations described in the original text and in the translation, and the semantic-transformational model postulates the similarity of basic notions and nuclear structures in different languages. These postulates are supposed to explain the dynamic aspects of translation. In other words, it is presumed that the translator actually makes a mental travel from the original to some interlingual level of equivalence and then further on to the text of translation. In the situational model this intermediate level is extralinguistic. It is the described reality, the facts of life that are represented by the verbal description. The process of translating presumably consists in the translator getting beyond the original text to the actual situation described in it. This is the first step of the process, i.e. the break-through to the situation. The See "Theory of Translation", Ch. VII. 30 second step is for the translator to describe this situation in the target language. Thus the process goes from the text in one language through the extralinguistic situation to the text in another language. The translator first understands what the original is about and then says "the same things" in TL. For instance, the translator reads in A. Cronin's "Citadel" the description of the main character coming by train to a new place of work: "Manson walked quickly down the platform, searching eagerly for some signs of welcome". He tries to understand what reality lies behind the words "searching eagerly for some signs of welcome". The man was alone in a strange place and couldn't expect any welcome committee or deputation. Obviously, he just wanted to see whether anyone was there to meet him. So, the translator describes the situation in Russian in the following way: «Мэнсон быстро прошел по перрону, оглядываясь, не встречает ли его кто-нибудь». A different approach was used by E. Nida who suggested that the translating process may be described as a series of transformations. The transformational model postulates that in any two languages there is a number of nuclear structures which are fully equivalent to each other. Each language has an area of equivalence in respect to the other language. It is presumed that the translator does the translating in three transformational strokes. First — the stage of analysis — he transforms the original structures into the nuclear structures, i.e. he performs transformation within SL. Second —the stage of translation proper —he replaces the SL nuclear structures with the equivalent nuclear structures in TL. And third —the stage of synthesis — he develops the latter Into the terminal structures in the text of translation. Thus if the English sentence "It is very strange this domination of our intellect by our digestive organs" (J.K. Jerome) is translated into Russian as «Странно, до какой степени пищеварительные органы властвуют над нашим рассудком» we presume that the structures "domination of our intellect" and "domination by our digestive organs" were first reduced to the nuclear structures "organs dominate" and "they dominate intellect", respectively. Then they were replaced by the equivalent Russian structures «органы властвуют» and «они властвуют над рассудком», after which the nuclear structures were transformed into the final Russian variant. A similar approach can be used to describe the translation of semantic units. The semantic model postulates the existence of the "deep" semantic categories common to SL and TL. It is presumed that the translator first reduces the semantic units of the original to these basic semantic categories and then expresses the appropriate notions by the semantic units of TL. 31 Thus if he comes across the sentence "John is the proud owner of a new car", he is first to realize that it actually means that "John has a new car" and that "he is proud because of thaf'. After transferring these basic ideas to Russian and converting them to the semantically acceptable phrases he will get the translation «У Джона (есть) новая машина, которой он очень гордится». In describing the process of translating we can explain the obtained variants as the result of the translator applying one or all of these models of action. This does not mean that a translation is actually made through the stages suggested by these models. They are not, however, just abstract schemes. Training translators we may teach them to use these models as practical tools. Coming across a specific problem in ST the translator should classify it as situational, structural or semantic and try to solve it by resorting to the appropriate procedure. If, for instance, in the sentence "He is a poor sleeper" the translator sees that the attributive group cannot be directly transferred into Russian, he can find that the transformational model will do the trick for him here and transform the attributive group into a verb-adverb phrase: «Он плохо спит». Another approach to the description of the process of translating consists in the identification of different types of operations performed by the translator. Here the process is viewed as a number of manipulations with the form or content of the original, as a result of which the translator creates the text in the target language. The type of operation is identified by comparing the initial and the final texts. The first group of operations (or transformations) is characterized by imitation of the form of a word or of a collocation. In the first case the translator tries to represent the pronunciation or the spelling of the foreign word with the TL letters. Thus we get such translations as «битник», «стриптиз», «эскалация», etc. This method is usually called translational transcription. A number of rules have been formulated as to the choice of Russian letters to represent the English sounds or letters, and the translator is expected to observe them in his work. hi the second case the translator creates a blueprint collocation in TL by using a loan translation. This results in such forms as «мозговой трест» (bison trust), «работа по правилам» (work-to-rule), «люди доброй воли» (people of good will). The second group of operations includes all types of lexical transformations involving certain semantic changes. As a result, the meaning of a word or word combination in ST may be made more specific, more general or somewhat modified as a way to discovering an appropriate equivalent in TL. The choice of a more specific word in translation which gives a more 32 detailed description of the idea than does the word in SL is a very common case in the English-Russian translating process. English often makes use of general terms to describe very definite objects or actions. The following sentence refers to a frightened woman trying to hide from an intruder who had suddenly burst into the room where she was pensively looking into the fire: My mother had left her chair in her agitation, and gone behind it in the corner. (Ch. Dickens) An attempt to use regular Russian equivalents for such general English verbs as "to leave" and "to go" will produce a ludicrous Russian phrase like this: «Матушка оставила свое кресло и пошла за него в угол». То соре with the problem a contextual substitute may be created by using the detailing technique, i.e. by describing how the woman performed those actions instead of just naming them, e.g.: Взволнованная матушка вскочила со своего кресла и забилась в угол позади него. One more example. Coming home after a long absence a young boy finds everything changed and no longer his own: My old dear bedroom was changed, and I was to lie a long way off. A blueprint Russian translation of this sentence would be hardly intelligible. Why should anyone "lie a long way off' from a bedroom? Obviously, "to lie" means "to go to bed" and "a long way off is in some other part of the same house. If so, why not say it in so many words? This is just the way to produce a contextual substitute: Моей милой старой спальни уже не было, и я должен был спать в другом конце дома. The opposite procedure, i.e. the use of an equivalent with a more general meaning, is not so common in translations from English into Russian, e.g.: I packed my two Gladstones. Я упаковал свои два чемодана. For obvious reasons the translator preferred a generic name to the specific name of the kind of suitcase that the Russian reader is unfamiliar with. Another type of lexical transformations is often called "modulation". It involves the creation of an equivalent by replacing a unit in SL with a TL unit the meaning of which can be logically deduced from it and which is just |
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