М. П. Ивашкин, В. В. Сдобников, А. В. Селяев
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Министерство образования Российской Федерации НИЖЕГОРОДСКИЙ ГОСУДАРСТВЕННЫЙ ЛИНГВИСТИЧЕСКИЙ УНИВЕРСИТЕТ им. Н.А.Добролюбова М.П.Ивашкин, В.В.Сдобников, А.В.Селяев ПРАКТИКУМПОСТИЛИСТИКЕ АНГЛИЙСКОГО ЯЗЫКА 2-е издание Рекомендован Учебно-методическим объединением по лингвистическому образованию Министерства образования Российской Федерации в качестве учебника для студентов лингвистических вузов и факультетов иностранных языков Нижний Новгород 2002 Печатается по решению редакционно-издательского совета НГЛУ им. Н.А.Добролюбова УДК 802.0 (075.83) М.П.Ивашкин, В.В.Сдобников, А.В.Селяев. Практикум по стилистике английского языка. Изд. 2-е. Нижний Новгород: НГЛУ им. Н.А.Добролюбова, 2002. – 120 с. ISBN 5-85839-062-5 В настоящем практикуме по стилистике английского языка освещаются такие вопросы, как классификация и функции фигур речи, стилистическая дифференциация лексического состава, экспрессивные синтаксические средства, функциональные стили, передача стилистических особенностей текстов разных жанров в переводе. В основе теоретических разделов практикума лежат общие положения лекционных курсов, разработанных доктором филологических наук, профессором Ю.М.Скребневым. В практических разделах особое внимание уделяется проблеме определения функций стилистических средств в текстах и способам воспроизведения этих функций в переводе. Практикум предназначен для использования в преподавании стилистики английского языка и практики перевода в лингвистических университетах и на факультетах иностранных языков при подготовке специалистов по специальностям "Перевод и переводоведение" и "Теория и методика преподавания иностранных языков и культур". Р е ц е н з е н т ы: докт. филол. наук, проф. В.И.Шаховский (Волгоградский государственный педагогический университет), канд. филол. наук, проф. Т.В.Максимова (Волгоградский государственный университет). © НГЛУ им. Н.А.Добролюбова © Ивашкин М.П., Сдобников В.В., Селяев А.В. ISBN 5-85839-062-5 STYLISTICS AS A BRANCH OF LINGUISTIC SCIENCE The term stylistics is derived from the word «style». The word style goes back to the Latin word «stilos». The Romans called thus a sharp stick used for writing on wax tablets. It was already in Latin that the meaning of the word «stilos» came to denote not only the tool of writing, but also the manner of writing. With this new meaning the word was borrowed into European languages. What does stylistics deal with? Every native speaker knows that there exist different ways of expressing people’s attitude towards phenomena of objective reality; there are different variants of expressing similar, though not quite identical ideas. Moreover, one can state the existence of different systems of expression within the general system of national language. This fact conditions the existence of stylistics and constitutes its proper object. Stylistics, then, is a branch of linguistics dealing with variants, varieties of linguistic expression and, hence, with the sub-systems making up the general system of language. These sub-systems are created by extra-lingual factors but at the same time they have linguistic contents, i.e. they differ lingually from one another. Being itself a system of signs, language may be subdivided into parallel sub-systems, synonymous to one another. For example, special sub-systems are made up by:
To these three sub-systems the following three synonymous sentences may be referred:
Everybody understands the linguistic distinctions of different, but synonymous ways of expressing the similar idea. The ultimate aim of stylistics is to establish the objective laws and practical rules of using proper linguistic forms in proper situations - to find out which form among the multitude of synonymous linguistic means conforms to the given extralingual circumstances. On the whole, stylistics is, in a broad sense, the investigation of synonymous linguistic means for the purpose of finding out their spheres of applicability. Stylistics resembles the so called dialectology. This branch of linguistics studies territorial variants of the national language. Stylistics studies social variants of the language - such variants as are used mostly not by different people (as in the case with dialects), but by the same person in different social situations. Since the sub-systems used in different types of speech may differ from one another in every respect - phonetically, lexically, morphologically, syntactically and semantically - stylistics is connected with all corresponding branches of linguistics - with phonetics, morphology, lexicology, syntax and semasiology. Since stylistics is interested in all the aspects of language, it should be subdivided into the same branches as in linguistics in general, to wit:
Stylistics, with all its subdivisions, reveals a peculiar approach towards language: it compares the sub-systems for the purpose of finding out the so-called styles. What is style? Every type of speech uses its own lingual sub-systems: not all the forms comprising the national language but only a certain number of forms. Every sub-system consists of:
It is self-evident that sub-systems differ from one another by their specific spheres alone, because their non-specific spheres coincide. Hence, specific spheres differentiating the sub-systems (and, ultimately, types of speech) may be called their styles, or, style may be defined as the specific sphere of the given sub-system. Roughly speaking, style is a complex of lexical, grammatical, etc. peculiarities by which a certain type of speech is characterized. Every linguistic unit, along with the meaning, has its stylistic value which may be characterized as connotation (i.e. additional meaning). The connotation of a linguistic unit is just what we think of it as belonging either to the specific sphere of a certain sub-system or to the non-specific sphere common to all the sub-systems. Hence, stylistic value is actualized by means of associations, namely:
STYLISTIC SEMASIOLOGY Stylistic semasiology is a part of stylistics which investigates stylistic phenomena in the sphere of semantics, i.e. in the sphere of meanings, regardless of the form of linguistic units. As distinct from stylistic lexicology or stylistic syntax which deal with words and sentences, stylistic semasiology makes meaning the object of its investigation. But some limitations to the object are to be borne in mind. Non-stylistic semasiology studies meanings. As concerns stylistic semasiology it is not so much the meaning itself that is investigated but the rules and laws of shifts of meanings; the patterns according to which meanings are shifted or either various combinations thus producing a certain stylistic effect. Stylistic semasiology also studies stylistic functions of shifts of meanings and of certain combinations of meanings. Stylistic phenomena effected by various shifts of meanings are usually termed «figures of speech». How shall we classify figures of speech? Shifts of meanings can be divided into two large groups, namely:
Hence, the corresponding figures of speech may be subdivided accordingly into figures of quantity (hyperbole, understatement, litotes) and figures of quality (metonymy, metaphor, irony). Both figures of quantity and figures of quality may be called figures of replacement since they are based on replacement of the habitual name of a thing by its situational substitute. We can give the name of figures of co-occurence to those stylistic phenomena which are based on combination of meanings in speech. The difference between the figures of replacement and those of co-occurence is as follows. In the former, it is one meaning that produces stylistic effect; in the latter, it is a combination of at least two meanings that produces stylistic effect. Thus, figures of replacement break down to figures of quantity and figures of quality. Figures of quantity: hyperbole, understatement, litotes. Figures of quality are subdivided into metonymical group (transfer by contiguity) consisting of metonymy, synecdoche, periphrasis; metaphorical group (transfer by similarity): metaphor, personification, epithet; and irony (transfer by contrast). Figures of co-occurence are subdivided into three groups: figures of identity (simile, synonymic repetition); figures of inequality (gradation, anti-climax); figures of contrast (antithesis, oxymoron). FIGURES OF REPLACEMENT Figures of Quantity Hyperbole is the use of a word, a word-group or a sentence which exaggerates the real degree of a quantity of the thing spoken about. It is a distortion of reality for the purpose of visualization or strengthening the emotional effect. It is also an important expressive literary device, often employed for humouristic purposes. E.g.: «One after another those people lay down on the grass to laugh - and two of them died» (Twain). Understatement consists in lessening, reducing the real quantity of the object of speech. The psychological essence of understatement is more complicated than that of hyperbole. The hearer is expected to understand the intentional discrepancy between what the speaker says about the object and what he really thinks about it. E.g.: «I was half afraid you had forgotten me». Litotes is a specific variety of understatement consisting in expressing the lessened degree of quantity of a thing by means of negation of the antonym. The negation of the antonym expresses the positive idea but in a somewhat lessened degree. E.g., «not bad» in the meaning of «good», or «little harm will be done by that». Figures of Quality Figures of quality, called «tropes» in traditional stylistics, are based on transfer of names. We must distinguish three types of transfer:
Transfer by contiguity is based upon some real connection between the two notions: that which is named and the one the name of which is taken for the purpose. Transfer by similarity is based on similarity, likeness of the two objects, real connection lacking completely. Transfer by contrast is the use of words and expressions with the opposite meanings - opposite to those meant. The transfer by contiguity forms the metonymic group of tropes; the transfer by similarity forms the metaphorical group; the transfer by contrast is irony. Metonymic group. Metonymy proper. Metonymy is applying the name of an object to another object in some way connected with the first. The metonymic connections between the two objects are manifold:
Synecdoche. Synecdoche is a variety of metonymy. It consists in using the name of a part to denote the whole, or vice versa. E.g.: «To be a comrade with a wolf and owl...». In this example «wolf» and «owl» stand for wild beasts and birds in general. Periphrasis. Periphrasis is in a way related to metonymy. It is a description of an object instead of its name. E.g.: «Delia was studying under Rosenstock - you know his repute as a disturber of the piano keys» (instead of «a pianist»). Metaphorical group. Metaphor. Metaphor is a transfer of the name of an object to another object on the basis of similarity, likeness, affinity of the two objects. At the same time there is no real connection between them, as in the case with metonymy. The stylistic function of a metaphor is not a mere nomination of the thing in question but rather its expressive characterization. E.g.: «The machine sitting at the desk was no longer a man; it was a busy New York broker...» (O’Henry). Metaphor has no formal limitations: it can be a word, a phrase, any part of a sentence, or a sentence as a whole. Metaphors are either simple or complex (prolonged). A simple, elementary metaphor is that which has no bearing on the context: it is a word, a phrase, a sentence. A prolonged metaphor is elaborated in a series of images logically connected with one another producing a general description of a character, a scene, etc. Personification is a particular case of metaphor. It consists in attributing life and mind to inanimate things. Besides the actual objects of Nature abstractions of the mind, such as life, death, truth, wisdom, love, evil, hope, etc. are frequently personified. Thus, personification is ascribing human properties to lifeless objects. In classical poetry of the 17th century personification was a tribute to mythological tradition and to the laws of ancient rhetoric: «How soon hath Time, the subtle thief of youth, Stolen on his wing my three and twentieth year!» (Milton) In poetry and fiction of the last two centuries personification was used to impart the dynamic force to the description or to reproduce the particular mood by which the events described are coloured. Personification is an important device used to depict the perception of the outer world by the lyrical hero. In most cases personification is indicated by some formal signals. First of all, it is the use of personal pronouns «he» and «she» with reference to lifeless things: «Then Night, like some great loving mother, gently lays her hand at our fevered head... and, though she does not speak, we know what she would say...» (Jerome). Personification is often achieved by the direct address: «O stretch by reign, fair Peace, from shore to shore Till conquest cease, and slavery be no more».
Another formal signal of personification is capitalized writing of the word which expresses a personified notion: «No sleep till morn, when Youth and Pleasure meet To chase the glowing Hours with flying feet». (Byron) One should bear in mind that sometimes the capital letter has nothing in common with personification, merely performing an emphasizing function. |
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