Практикум по переводу с английского
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1.3. HANDLING EQUIVALENT-LACKING WORDS Introductory Notes It has been pointed, out (see pp. 24-25) that many English words have no regular equivalents, and a number of techniques has been suggested for rendering the meanings of such equivalent-lacking words in TT. Now the practising translator most often has to resort to such techniques when he comes across some new-coined words in the source text or deals with names of objects or phenomena unknown to the TL community (the so-called "realia"). New words are coined in the language to give names to new objects, or phenomena which become known to the people. This process is going on a considerable scale as shown by the necessity of publishing dictionaries of new words. (See, for example, 'The Barnhart Dictionary of New English 1963-1972", London, 1973, with more than 5,000 entries). With the English vocabulary constantly expanding, no dictionary can catch up with the new arrivals and give a more or less complete list of the new words. Moreover there are numerous short-lived lexical units created ad hoc by the English-speaking people in the process of oral or written communication. Such words may never get in common use and will not be registered by the dictionaries but they are well understood by the communicants since they are coined on the familiar structural and semantic models. If someone is ever referred to as a "Polandologist", the meaning will be readily understood against such terms as "Kremlinologist" or "Sovietologist". If a politician is called "a nuclearist", the new coinage will obviously mean a supporter of 80  nuclear arms race. "A zero-growther" would be associated with some zero-growth theory or policy and so on. When new words come into being to denote new objects or phenomena, they naturally cannot have regular equivalents in another language. Such equivalents may only gradually evolve as the result of extensive contacts between the two nations. Therefore the translator coming across a new coinage has to interpret its meaning and to choose the appropriate way of rendering it in his translation. Consider the following sentence: "In many European capitals central streets have been recently pedestrianized.'1 First, the translator will recognize the origin of "pedestrianize" which is coined from the word "pedestrian" — «пешеход» and the verb-forming suffix -ize. Then he will realize the impossibility of a similar formation in Russian (опешеходить!) and will opt for a semantic transformation: «движение транспорта было запрещено», «улицы были закрыты для транспорта» or «улицы были отведены только для пешеходов». As often as not a whole set of new words may enter in common use, all formed on the same model. Thus, the anti-segregation movement in the United States in the 1960's introduced a number of new terms to name various kinds of public demonstrations formed from a verb + -in on the analogy of "sit-in": "ride-in" (in segregated buses), "swim-in" (in segregated swimming pools), "pray-in" (in segregated churches) and many others. Various translators may select different ways of translating a new coinage, with several substitutes competing with one another. As a rule, one of them becomes more common and begins to be used predominantly. For instance, the new term "word-processor" was translated into Russian as «словообработчик», «словопроцессор» and «текстопроцессор», the last substitute gaining the upper hand. The translator should carefully watch the development of the usage and follow the predominant trend. Similar problems have to be solved by the translator when he deals with equivalent-lacking words referring to various SL realia. As often as not, the translator tries to transfer the name to TL by way of borrowing, loan word or approximate equivalents. Many English words have been introduced in Russian in this way: «бейсбол» (baseball), «небоскреб» (skyscraper), «саквояжники» (carpet baggers), etc. Quite a number of equivalent-lacking words of this type, however, still have no established substitutes in Russian, and the translator has to look for an occasional equivalent each time he comes across such a word in the source text. Mention can be made here of 'filibustering", "baby-sitter", "tinkerer", "know-how", "ladykiller", and many others. A large group of equivalent-lacking English words includes words of general semantics which may have a great number of substitutes in Russian 81 which cannot be listed or enumerated. These are such words as "approach, control, corporate, pattern, record, facility", etc. Numerous lexical units of this type are created by conversion especially when compound verbs are nominalized. What is "a fix-up" for example? It can refer to anything that is fixed up. And "a set-up" is anything that is set up, literally or figuratively. The translator is expected to understand the general idea conveyed by the word and to see what referent it is denoting in each particular case. Special attention should be paid to English conjunctions and prepositions which are often used differently from their apparent equivalents in Russian and are, in fact, equivalent-lacking. Such common conjunctions as "when, if, as, once, whichever" and some others are not infrequently the cause of errors in translation and should be most carefully studied. Similar pitfalls can be set for the translator by such productive English "semi-suffixes" as -minded, -conscious, -oriented, -manship,etc. In conclusion, let us recall that any word may become equivalent-lacking if the particular context makes it impossible to use its regular equivalent and forces the translator to resort to some semantic transformation. Translating equivalent-lacking words calls for a good deal of ingenuity and imagination on the part of the translator who should be well trained to use the appropriate semantic transformations, whenever necessary. At the same time he must be prepared to look for new ways of solving his problems whenever the standard methods cannot be applied to the particular context. Exercises I. Interpret the meaning of new words in the following sentences and suggest their Russian substitutes. 1. Galaxies take something like 10 billion years to evolve, which is comparable to the age Big Bangers give to the universe. 2. It is one thing to lambaste the tyranny of diplomaism, but quite another to expect nations to function without high standards of excellence. 3. On most US campuses these days grantmanship — the fine art of picking off research funds - is almost as important to professional prestige as the ability to teach or carry out research. 4. Though her French was not very good and my own regrettably Franglais, we used to read the roles to each other. 5. His political views are an odd mixture of the doctrines of free enterprise and those of welfarists. 6. He noted that the Administration "faces a credibility gap of enormous proportions" with blacks. 7. The President played up again the alleged Soviet military superiority, especially the missile gap. 8. The US industrial and social system is delivering such "disproducts" as pollution and racial tension and no longer seems to be supplying the compensating effi-82 ciency. 9. The vaccine is the result of a new type of ultra high-speed centrifuge that is spinoff from atomic weapons work. 10. Throw-away umbrellas made of paper have just been marketed on an experimental basis by a Tokyo paper goods firm. II. Translate the following sentences paying particular attention to adequate rendering into Russian of equivalent-lacking words. 1. Throughout the world fluid fuels are replacing solid fuels because of their technical advantages in transport, handling, storage and use. 2. The law required the use of the French language in addition to English ... It aroused a sensational, though temporary, backlash of English-speaking opinion. 3. Many politicians owe their success to charisma and demagogy rather than to high intelligence and honesty. 4. The girl tried to earn her living as baby-sitter in the neighbourhood. 5. Every morning he joined a group of young commuters living in the same condominium. 6. He was a born tinkerer and would never have a repairman in his house. 7. Last week the Biological Engineering Society celebrated the tenth anniversary of this broad interface between medicine and technology with a conference in Oxford. 8. What does being ahead mean when possessing more or less overkill cannot be translated into anything that is militarily or humanly meaningful? 9. There will of course be carping critics of the project among do-gooders, conservationists, starry-eyed liberals and wild-lifers. 10. Four potholers were found suffering from exposure yesterday after being missed for more than 12 hours. III. Suggest appropriate substitutes for the words in bold type in the following sentences. Observe variations in the meaning of words of general semantics in various contexts. 1. Segregation and discrimination which was the pattern in the United States followed American Negroes to the battlefield. 2. Following the nazi pattern the junta made it a policy to victimize every active trade unionist. 3. Summarizing what it found among the 100 typical cases studied, the committee said it was a pattern of "low wages, broken health, broken homes and shortcomings in food and shelter". 4. We believe that the present anti-union campaign is a big business set-up. 5. The language of the anti-union laws of the 1920's was not so different from the Smith Act. It too was an elastic set-up, designed to pull hundreds into its thought-control dragnet. 6. The pre-war arms drive gave a spur to the expansion of production facilities, but it still further reduced the purchasing power of the people. 7. The enemy rushed new troops and facilities to the area. 8. Many teachers complain of the lack of educational facilities in the countryside. 83 IV. Translate the following sentences employing the semantic transformations suggested in the parenthesis. 1. Already the reactionary offensive of Yankee imperialism was beginning to get the inevitable answer from the Latin America peoples (specification). 2. At seven o'clock a dull meal was served in the oakpanelled dining-room (specification). 3.1 apologize for stepping on your toe (generalization). 4. Now, more than two hours later, the big jet was still stuck, its fuselage and tail blocking rainway three zero (generalization). 5. He would cheer up somehow, begin to laugh again, and draw skeletons all over his slate, before his eyes were dry (modulation). 6. Unfortunately, the ground to the right which was normally grass covered, had a drainage problem, due to be worked on when winter ended (modulation). 7. He had an old mother whom he never disobeyed (antonymous translation). 8. No person may be reinstated to a position in the post service without passing an appropriate examination (antonymous translation). 9. When she reached the house she gave another proof of her identity (explication). 10. In one of his whistle-stop speeches the Presidential nominee briefly outlined his attitude towards civil rights program (explication). V. Note the use of the conjunctions in the following sentences. Suggest the appropriate Russian translations. 1. The Prime Minister will arrive on Friday when he will address the House of Commons. 2. Two workers were injured when a fork-lift fell over. 3. Problems have arisen when individuals have decided to make changes in the layout of the offices. 4. Every day the US press contains some malignant attack directed against the common people of Britain, who are accused of loafing and malingering at work, while demanding high wages and expensive social services. 5. If there was anything that he hated, it was a woman with pointed finger nails. 6. Her knowledge of things and people seemed precise and decided, if not profound. 7. He has been to Warwick fifty times, if he has been there once. 8. The postmaster should deposit at the bank daily returns one half hour before closing of either the post office or the bank, whichever is earlier. 9. Change oil every 6 months or at. 12,000 km. intervals, whichever is earlier. 1.4. HANDLING TRANSLATOR'S FALSE FRIENDS Introductory Notes There are words in the source and target languages which are more or less similar in form. Such words are of great interest to the translator since he is naturally inclined to take this formal similarity for the semantic proximity and to regard the words that look alike as permanent equivalents. 84 The formal similarity is usually the result of the two words having the common origin, mainly derived from either Greek or Latin. Since such words can be found in a number of languages, they are referred to as "international". As a matter of fact, very few international words have the same meanings in different languages. In respect to English and Russian we can cite the words like the English "parliament, theorem, diameter" and their Russian counterparts «парламент, теорема, диаметр». In most cases, however, the semantics of such words in English and in Russian do not coincide and they should rather be named "pseudointernational". Their formal similarity suggesting that they are interchangeable, is, therefore, deceptive and may lead to translation errors. For that reason they are often referred to as the translator's false friends. The pseudointernational words can be classified in two main groups. First, there are words which are similar in form but completely different in meaning. Here the risk of making a bad mistake is very great whenever the translator fails to consult his dictionary. Lots of mistakes have been made translating such English words as "decade, complexion, lunatic, accurate, actual, aspirant" and the like. E.g.: (1) It lasted the whole decade. (2) She has a very fine complexion. (3) Well, he must be a lunatic. The respective Russian words «декада, комплекция, лунатик» are pseudointernational and cannot be used in translation. Cf.: (1) Это продолжалось целое десятилетие. (2) У нее прекрасный цвет лица. (3) Да он, должно быть, сумасшедший. Second, there are many pseudointernational words which are not fully interchangeable though there are some common elements in their semantics. They may become the false friends if the translator substitutes one of them for the other without due regard to the difference in their meaning or to the way the English word is used in the particular context. The translator should bear in mind that a number of factors can preclude the possibility of using the formally similar word as an equivalent. Among these factors the following are most important: 1. The semantic factor resulting from the different subsequent development of the words borrowed by the two languages from the same source. For instance, the English "idiom" can be well rendered by its Russian counterpart to convey the idea of an expression whose meaning cannot be derived from the conjoined meanings of its elements but has 85 developed such additional meanings as dialect (local idiom) and individual style (Shakespeare's idiom). When the word is used in either of these meanings its equivalent in Russian will not be «идиом», but «диалект, наречие» or «стиль», respectively. As often as not, the translator may opt for an occasional equivalent to a pseudointernational word just as he may do while dealing with any other type of the word: South Vietnam was a vast laboratory for the testing of weapons of counter-guerrilla warfare. Южный Вьетнам стал полигоном для испытания оружия, используемого в войне против партизан. 2. The stylistic factor resulting from the difference in the emotive or stylistic connotation of the correlated words. For example, the English "career" is neutral while the Russian «карьера» is largely negative. The translator has to reject the pseudointernational substitute and to look for another way out, e.g.: Davy took on Faraday as his assistant and thereby opened a scientific career for him. Дэви взял Фарадея к себе в ассистенты и тем самым открыл ему путь в науку. 3. The co-occurrence factor reflecting the difference in the lexical combinability rules in the two languages. The choice of an equivalent is often influenced by the usage preferring a standard combination of words to the formally similar substitute. So, a "defect" has a formal counterpart in the Russian «дефект» but "theoretical and organizational defects" will be rather «теоретические и организационные просчеты». A "gesture" is usually translated as «жест» but the Russian word will not be used to translate the following sentence for the combinability factor: The reason for including only minor gestures of reforms in the program... Причина включения в программу лишь жалкого подобия реформ... 4. The pragmatic factor reflecting the difference in the background knowledge of the members of the two language communities which makes the translator reject the formal equivalent in favour of the more explicit or familiar variant. The reader of the English original will usually need no explanation concerning the meaning of such terms as "the American Revolution", "the Reconstruction" or "the Emancipation Proclamation" which refer to the familiar facts of the US history. In the Russian 86 translation, however, these terms are usually not replaced by their pseudointernational equivalents. Instead, use is made of the descriptive terms better known to the Russian reader: The American Revolution was a close parallel to the wars of national liberation in the colonial and semi-colonial countries. Война за независимость в Америке была прямым прототипом национально-освободительных войн в колониальных и полуколониальных странах. This counter-revolutionary organization was set up to suppress the Negro — poor white alliance that sought to bring democracy in the South in the Reconstruction period. Эта контрреволюционная организация была создана для подавления совместной борьбы нефов и белых бедняков, которые добивались установления демократии на юге после отмены рабства. The Senator knew Lincoln's Emancipation Proclamation by heart. Сенатор знал наизусть провозглашенную Линкольном декларацию об отмене рабства. With the knowledge of, and due regard to, these factors, the translator stands a good chance of making the pseudointernational words his good friends and allies. Exercises I. Make a careful study of the following groups of words. Note the difference in the meaning in English and in Russian and suggest the appropriate equivalents. 1. actual ф актуальный; 2. appellation Ф апелляция; 3. aspirant Ф аспирант; 4. balloon Ф баллон; 5. baton ф батон; 6. billet ф билет; 7. compositor ф композитор; 8. concern Ф концерн; 9. depot Ф депо; 10. direction Ф дирекция; 11. fabric Ф фабрика; 12. genial Ф гениальный; 13. intelligence Ф интеллигенция; 14. motion Ф моцион; 15. motorist Ф моторист; 16. obligation Ф облигация; 17. physique Ф физик; 18. probe Ф проба; 19. protection Ф протекция; 20. pathos Ф пафос П. Note the meanings of the English international words and translate them in the examples cited below. 1. extravagant ad]. 1. spending much more than is necessary or prudent; wasteful; 2. excessively high (of prices) We mustn't buy roses — it is too extravagant in winter. 2. catholic ad], (esp. likings and interests) general, wide-spread; broad- minded; liberal; including many or most things Mr. Prower was a politician with catholic tastes and interests. 87 3. dramatic adj. 1. sudden or exciting; 2. catching and holding the imagination by unusual appearance or effects How would you account for such dramatic changes in the situation? 4. minister/?. 1. Christian priest or clergyman; 2. a person representing his Government but of lower rank than an ambassador The British minister at Washington was requested to notify his Government of a possible change in the agenda of the forthcoming meeting. 5. routine n. the regular, fixed, ordinary way of working or doing things Frequent inspections were a matter of routine in the office. 6. pathetic adj. \. sad, pitiful; exciting pity or sympathetic sadness; affecting or moving the feelings; 2. worthless, hopelessly unsuccessful Perhaps it was merely that this pathetic look of hers ceased to wring his heart-strings. 7. pilot n. 1. a person qualified to steer ships through certain difficult waters or into or out of a harbor; 2. a guide or leader Before entering on his literary career Mark Twain was employed as pilot on vessels going up and down the Mississippi river. 8. student n. (of smth.) a person with a stated interest; anyone who is devoted to the acquisition of knowledge The recently published work of the world-known ornithologist will be interesting to any student of bird-life. III. Explain why the Russian words similar in form cannot be used as substitutes for the English words in bold type. 1. Tolstoy devoted the remainder of his life to writing little pamphlets, preaching peace and love and the abolition of poverty. 2. The navigator on an aircraft must have a good eye for spotting the slightest error in case the robot pilot goes out of control. 3. The boy is quick and accurate at figures. 4. He kept that TV going from noon till long past midnight. Away from it for any length of time he actually became confused and disoriented. 5. His faith in himself and his project was a delicate thing at best. 6. She smiled and Joe was touched suddenly by the very special beauty of the lady — by the still-young blue of eyes that were more deeply sympathetic than truly young eyes could ever be. 7. This indecision consumed the better part of an afternoon. It was typical of the kind of paralysis into which his mind had fallen. 8. Covering a portion of wall from ceiling to floor, were several long strips of paper on which had been painted in black the legend: "It's later 88 than you think." 9. We met at the academy, roomed together and immediately felt that rare and wonderful rapport that lights up when two people get along beautifully. 10. Efforts have been made to show that Wishart carried his doctrine into practice; that he was an agitator and may well have been an intermediary in the murder plot against Beaton. |
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