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Практическая работа № 30. Тема: Физические явления и стихийные бедствия. Цель: работа с терминами, активизация изученной лексики. Перечень оборудования для проведения работы: тетрадь, письменные принадлежности, словарь. Задание: прочитайте и переведите текст «OzoneLayer». Ozone layer or ozonosphere, region of the stratosphere containing relatively high concentrations of ozone, located at altitudes of 12-30 mi (19-48 km) above the earth's surface. Ozone in the ozone layer is formed by the action of solar ultraviolet light on oxygen. The ozone layer prevents most ultraviolet (UV) and other high-energy radiation from penetrating to the earth's surface but does allow through sufficient ultraviolet rays to support the activation of vitamin D in humans. The full radiation, if unhindered by this filtering effect, would destroy animal tissue. Higher levels of radiation resulting from the depletion of the ozone layer have been linked with increases in skin cancers and cataracts and have been implicated in the decline of certain amphibian species. In 1974 scientists warned that certain industrial chemicals, e.g., chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) and to a lesser extent, halons and carbon tetrachloride, could migrate to the stratosphere. There, sunlight could free the chlorine or bromine atoms to form chlorine monoxide or other chemicals, which would deplete upper-atmospheric ozone. A seasonal decrease, or "hole," discovered in 1985 in the ozone layer above Antarctica was the first confirmation of a thinning of the layer. The hole occurs over Antarctica because the extreme cold helps the very high clouds characteristic of that area form tiny ice particles of water and nitric acid, which facilitate the chemical reactions involved. In addition, the polar winds, which follow a swirling pattern, create a confined vortex, trapping the chemicals. When the Antarctic sun rises in August or September and hits the trapped chemicals, a chain reaction begins in which chlorine, bromine (from the halons), and ice crystals react with the ozone and destroy it very quickly. The effect usually lasts through November. There is a corresponding hole over the Arctic that similarly appears in the spring, although in some years warmer winters there do not result in a major depletion of the ozone layer. A global thinning of the ozone layer results as ozone-rich air from the remaining ozone layer flows into the ozone-poor areas. Minimum ozone levels in the Antarctic decreased steadily throughout the 1990s, and less dramatic decreases have been found above other areas of the world. In 2000 (and again in 2003) the hole reached a record size, extending over 10.8 million sq mi (28 million sq km), an area greater than that of North America. In 1987 an international agreement, the Montreal Protocol , was reached on reducing the production of ozone-depleting compounds. Revisions in 1992 called for an end to the production of the worst of such compounds by 1996, and CFC emissions dropped dramatically by 1993. Recovery of the ozone layer, however, is expected to take 50 to 100 years. Damage to the ozone layer can also be caused by sulfuric acid droplets produced by volcanic eruptions. Отчет о проделанной работе: письменно переведен текст. Практическая работа № 31. Тема: Железные дороги в России. Цель: активизация новой лексики и совершенствование грамматических навыков. Перечень оборудования для проведения работы: тетрадь, письменные принадлежности, словарь. Задание: прочитайте текст и переведите. THE OLDEST RAILWAY IN RUSSIA The St.Petersburg–Moscow mainline is considered to be the oldest and the most outstanding railway in Russia. In the thirties of the 19thcentury much was spoken about the necessity of its construction and various projects were proposed by Pravdin, Safonov, Muravjov, Abaza, but all of them were rejected. In June 1839, the professors of the Moscow Engineering Institute P.P.Melnikov and N.O. Kraft were sent to the USA for the purpose of studying experience gained by the Americans in constructing and operating the railways. Melnikov's report about the results of their trip laid down the basis of the future railway project. According to this project «chugunka» was planned as a double-track line, 664 km long, with the 5 feet gauge (now the standard), steam powered. The speed of passenger and freight trains was supposed to be 34.4 km/h and 16 km/h respectively. The construction began in 1843 and lasted 8 years. From the very beginning the builders faced many hardships because of severe climatic and difficult geological conditions. Hundreds of kilometers of track were laid down through forests and marshes, many rivers were crossed. It should be noted that the line is virtually straight and level. 185 bridges and 19 viaducts were built to make the line as straight as possible. There is a legend that the route of the railway was chosen by the tsar Nikolay I, who took the map and the ruler, drew a straight line between the two cities on the map and ordered this line to be the route of the railway. But the fact is that the construction of the line was preceded by long and thorough surveying work, a great part of which was done by P.P.Melnikov himself. All the component parts of the track, bridges and viaducts were produced at Russian plants by using only domestic materials, including timber for sleepers and cast iron for rails. One has to give credit [нужноотдатьдолжное]to the first railway builders, who laid the track in extremely difficult conditions. They worked from dawn till sunset, often in water up to their knees and their main tools were spades and axes. P.P. Melnikov proposed to mechanize the railway construction, but his idea was not backed up because it required a lot of expenses., Nevertheless, four excavators were bought in the USA on Melnikov's recommendation. It is interesting to note that at that time there were only seven excavators in the world. The other three ones were operated in the USA and Great Britain. The railway was officially opened for public traffic on November 1, 1851. The first train departed from St.Petersburg at 11.15 and arrived in Moscow 21 hours 45 minutes later. There were 17 passengers in the first-class cars, 63 – in the second-class cars and 112 – in the third-class cars. The speed of the first trains was 40 km/h but two years later it was increased up to 60 km/h. It was the world's record in the speed of passenger trains. It should be added that the Alexander Engineering Works was established in St. Petersburg to provide this railway with locomotives and cars. Отчет о проделанной работе: письменный перевод текста. Практическая работа № 32. Тема: Определение активного и пассивного залога. Цель: определение пассивного залога. Перечень оборудования для проведения работы: тетрадь, письменные принадлежности, словарь. Задание: выполните тест. Active/ PassiveVoice Выберите правильный вариант: 1.We ... by a loud noise during the night. woke upare woken upwere woken upwere waking up 2.A new supermarket is going to ... next year. Buildbe builtbe buildingbuilding 3.There’s somebody walking behind us. I think ... . we are followingwe are being followingwe are followed we are being followed 4.‘Where ...?’ ‘In London’. were you bornare you bornhave you been borndid you born 5.There was a fight at the party, but nobody ... . was hurtwere hurthurt 6.Jane ... to phone me last night, but she didn’t. Supposedis supposedwas supposed 7.Where ...? Which hairdresser did you go to? did you cut your hairhave you cut your hair did you have cut your hairdid you have your hair cut 8.... during the storm. They were collapsed the fenceThe fence was collapsed They collapsed the fenceThe fence collapsed 9.The new computer system ... next month. is being installed by people is be installed is being installedis been installed 10.The children ... to the zoo. were enjoyed takenenjoyed being taken were enjoyed takingenjoyed taking 11.... chair the meeting. John was decided toThere was decided that John should It was decided that John shouldJohn had been decided to 12.This car is not going ... in the race. to driveto be driveto drivento be driven 13.Will these clothes ... by Saturday? Makemadebe makebe made 14.The mice ... the cheese. have eatenhave been eatenhas eatenhas been eaten 15.When a student I ... to the discos every Friday night. used to goare used to gouse to gowere used to go 16.Neither Jim nor Jack ... there. was invitedwas been invitedwere invitedwere been invited 17.Your food ... . is still being preparedhas still been prepared is being preparewill prepare yet 18.Their engagement ... in the local paper. was announcedhas been announcing is being announcedhad announced 19.When ...? has the letter postedhas the letter been posted was the letter posteddid the letter post 20.After the volcanic eruption of 1957 the railway station ... . destroyed completelywas completely destroyed hasbeendestroyedhasdestroyed Отчет о проделанной работе: выполнение теста. Практическая работа № 33. Тема:История развития железных дорог. Цель: подготовка к пересказу текста, активизация лексики. Перечень оборудования для проведения работы: тетрадь, письменные принадлежности, словарь. Задание:прочитайте текст и ответьте на вопросы к тексту. FROM THE HISTORY OF RAILWAY TRANSPORT The word ‘transport’ (or ‘transportation’) means to carry people or goods from place to place. Henry Ford, the American motor-car manufacturer, said that “transportation is civilization”. The history of transport is divided into two stages. The first stage is that in which all modes of transport depended directly on the power of men or animals, or on natural forces such as wind and current. The second stage began with the development of the steam engine. Do you know who invented it? It is sometimes said that James Watt got the idea for a steam engine while still a boy, watching steam lift the lid of his mother's tea kettle. The truth is that James Watt did not invent the steam engine; however, he made major improvements on the inefficient steam enginepatented in 1705 by Thomas Newcomen, John Cawley, and Thomas Savery. James Watt installed his engine in a machine which was used at a large coal mine for pumping out the water. Soon this invention was widely used at nearly every large enterprise. The revolution in industry made by this machine was extremely great. One of the first attempts to put a steam engine on wheels was made by Richard Trevithick, a British mining engineer. In 1804 he demonstrated the first successful railroad steam locomotive. His engine pulled a short train of cars uphill on a coal-mine railway in Wales. In the years after Trevithick’s locomotive, several others were built for use on various British coal-mine railways. The world’s first common carrier railroadto use steam power was the Stockton-Darlington railway in England. It was designed and built byGeorge Stephenson and opened for public servicein 1825. On the day when it was opened, a man on a horse went in front of the engine and shouted that the train was coming. People on horses and in carriages were driving near the train. When they had gone for some time, Stephenson, who was running his locomotive, asked the horseman to go away. He put steam on and ran his locomotive at a speed of 12 miles per hour (about 20 km per hour). It was a success. But the British Parliament did not want to construct railways. The members of the parliament did not believe that steam engines could run against a strong wind. Then Stephenson built a new locomotive and called it the Rocket. This locomotive was faster and stronger than the first one; it could draw a 13-ton train at an “unheard-of speed” of 29 miles per hour (46 km per hour). In 1829 the Liverpool-Manchester Railway was built, and the railway company offered a prize of £500 for the best steam loco. The prize was won by GeorgeStephenson with his famous train. Though not the first such locomotive, it was the beginning of the effective use of steam power for passenger andfreight transportation. At first many people wereafraid of the railways; nevertheless in 1842 the steam-powered railways were already in wide use in Britain. Railroads were born in England, a country ofdense population, short distances, and large financial resources. In England problems were very different from those in America, which in the early 1800s was a country of great distances, sparse population, and limited capital. Americans had to learn to build railroads for their own country byactual experience; they could not copy English methods. In the USA the first railroads were built in mines for carrying stone or coal. In 1804 Oliver Evans (who had built an amphibious steam-powered scow with wheels) declared that he could “make a steam carriage that will run at a speedof 15 miles per hour on good, level railways.” As early as 1812 Colonel John Stevens, of Hoboken, N.J., began to speak for a new kind of railway. He wanted one that would provide long-distance transportation, linking distant areas of the country. In 1815 Stevens obtained the first charter to build a railroad across New Jersey, buthe was unable to raise the money needed to build it. The first common carrier railroad tobe built in the United States was the Baltimore and Ohio. It was chartered in1827 and construction started on July 4, 1828. The first steam locomotive to run in the United States, the English-built Stourbridge Lion, made a trial trip over the tracks of the Delaware and Hudson Canal Company in Pennsylvania in 1829. On the day of a test trip a lot of people came from miles around the small Pennsylvania town to see the first run of the steam locomotive. The engineer refused to let anyone ride with him – perhaps because the engine had not been tested before. As the signal to start was given, there was a moment of suspense. Then, slowly, the wheels began to turn. Cheers went up as engineer Allen opened the throttle wide and began his historic trip. All along the route, men were waving their hats, small boys were shouting, and women were looking in amazement as the Lionthundered past at the fantastic speed of ten miles per hour. Who would have believed that anything so big could move so fast without a horse to pull it! But the engine was too heavy for the track and the trip was not repeated. In the summer of 1830 service began on the Baltimore and Ohio line, with horses providing the power. Finally, in December 1830 an American-built locomotive, the Best Friend of Charleston, hauled a train of cars on the tracks of the South Carolina Railroad. The railroad had come to America. Railroads spread rapidly in the eastern and southern United States, with short lines being merged to form through routes. By the mid-1850s, railways linked the Atlantic seaboard and the Midwest. In 1869 the first transcontinental route was completed to the Pacific coast.Railroads became the dominant mode of overland transportation in the last half of the 19thcentury. Faster and more powerful locomotives and larger freight and passenger cars were built. Standardization of track gauges and the adoption of standard time zones aided efficiency. The invention of air brakes,automatic signaling, and the automatic couplerincreased safety. Sleeping cars and dining cars increased passenger comfort and convenience. Notes: Commoncarrierrailroad – железнаядорогаобщегопользования engineer – зд: машинист throttle – дроссель, дроссельнаязаслонка air brake – воздушныйтормоз automatic coupler – автосцепка Answer the following questions. 1) What does the word ‘transport’ mean? 2) Who said that “transportation is civilization”? 3) How many stages is the history of transport divided into? 4) Did the second stage in the history of transport begin with the invention of the wheel? 5)Whom was the first steamengine invented by? 6) Did Thomas Savery improve the inefficient steam engine designed by Thomas Newcomen? 7) Where did James Watt install his engine? 8) Who made one of the first attempts to put a steam engine on wheels? 9) Where was the world’s first common carrier railroad to use steam power built? 10) Did Robert Stephenson design and built the first common carrier railway in Britain? 11) Why didn’t the British Parliament want to build railways? 12) When was the Liverpool-Manchester Railway put into operation? 13) What can you say about the locomotive called the Rocket? Отчет о проделанной работе: письменные ответына вопросы к тексту. |
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