Элективный курс
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3. PASCAL PASCAL was invented in 1970 by Professor Niklaus Wirth of Zurich, Switzerland. It was named after the mathematician Blaise Pascal, who invented one of the earliest practical calculators. PASCAL is a mathematically oriented programming language and, as such, is most commonly used in mathematics, engineering, and computer science departments of colleges and universities. This language is somewhat unusual in that it was designed to be a structured language. This means that the program must be written in logical modules which are in turn called by a main controlling module. Much of PASCAL'S popularity is due to work done at the University of California at San Diego, where PASCAL has been implemented on several different computers including microcomputers. 14. Прочтите тексты (по вариантам) и составьте рефераты на английском языке. 1. The conversion of symbolic languages As we see, most of the symbolic languages are oriented toward the particular application areas of business or science (math). The one problem with all symbolic languages is that none of them can be understood by a computer. The symbolic languages may say AP, ADD, or us6 a "plus" sign to indicate an addition step, but the only thing that means addition to a computer is its binary machine code. We have symbolic programs that are relatively easy for humans to understand, but they cannot be understood by computers. On the other hand, we have machine code that is understood by the computer, but it is difficult for humans to use. The solution is a translator that translates the symbolic program into machine code. The translator allows the human to work with relatively easy-to-understand symbolic languages and it allows the computer to follow instructions in machine code. The translation of symbolic instructions to machine code is accomplished through the use of a program called a language processor. There are three types of language processors. They are called assemblers, compilers, and interpreters. Each translates symbolic instructions to machine code, but each does it differently. (The translator is a program itself. It is part of a group of programs, called the operating systems, that help us to use the computer.) 2. Running the computer program The operating system is a collection of program provided by the computer's manufacturer that allows us to schedule jobs for the computer, to translate source programs into object programs, to sort data stored on secondary storage devices, and to copy data from any input device to any output device. These programs are called control programs, language programs and utility programs. The control program (often called the supervisor, monitor, or executive) is a main-storage-resident program. Its functions are to schedule jobs, scheduled input and output for our programs and to monitor the execution of our programs. The language processors are programs that translate source programs into object programs. There are three types of language processors: assemblers, compilers, and interpreters. Each language has its own language processor. The service programs are programs that are commonly used in all data processing centers. They have functions that are required by everyone using a computer. Examples of service programs include linkage editors to prepare object programs for execution, a librarian to catalog programs into a library area on magnetic disc, utility programs to transfer data from device to device, and sort-merge programs for sorting data on magnetic tape or disk. 3. Testing the computer program There are two kinds of errors or bugs with which programmers must deal. The first type is the coding error. Such errors are syntax errors that prevent the language processor from successfully translating the source program to object program code. The language processor identifies the nature and the location of the error on the source program listing, so these errors are relatively easy to find and correct. The second type of bug is the logic error. The computer program can be successfully translated, but the program does not produce the desired results. These errors are generally much more difficult to find and to correct than are coding errors. Logic errors can be avoided through careful planning of the program logic, but it is the programmer's responsibility to test thoroughly all of the program's functions, in order to verify that the program performs according to specifications. There are many tools provided to the programmer to help in debugging the program logic. These tools are called debug packages or tracing routines. They assist the programmer in following the logic by printing out calculation results and field values used in making logic decisions in the program. In a few cases it may be necessary to use a memory dump — a printout of the instructions and date held in the computer's memory — in order to find the cause of logic errors. Final Test 1. Подберите вместо пропусков подходящее по смыслу слово. 1. The most common ______ for planning the program logic are flowcharting and pseudocode. a) technologies; b) technics; c) techniques. 2. ______ was designed for dealing with the complicated mathematical calculations of scientists and engineers. a) COBOL; b) FORTRAN; c) PL/I. 3. ______ is the foundation of any programming languages. a) a set of rules; b) a group of numbers; c) a lot of instructions 4. I / О______match the physical and electrical characteristics of input-output devices. a) interchanges; b) interfaces; c) interpretations 5. Letter-quality, dot-matrix and ink-jet printers are all ______ printers. a) line; b) page; c) character. 6. The most common device used to transfer information from the user to the computer is the______. a) keyboard; b) printer; c) modem. 7. Input-output units link the computer to its external. a) requirement; b) development; c) environment. 8. I / О devices can be classified according to their speed, visual displays being _______ devices. a) high-speed; b)medium-speed; c) low-speed. 2. Согласуйте слова в левой колонке с их интерпретацией, предложенной справа. 1. Computer a) an electronic device accepting data processing results from the computer system; 2. Input b) the unit performing arithmetic operations called for in the instructions; 3. Output c) the unit coordinating all the activities of various components of the computer. It reads information, interprets instructions, performs operations, etc; 4.Software d) a set of programs designed to control the operation of a computer 5.Hardware e) lists of instructions followed by the control unit of the CPU: 6. Storage f) an electronic device keying information into the computer; 7.CPU g) the unit holding all data to be processed, intermediate and final results of processing; 8.CU h) visible units, physical components of a data processing system; 9.ALU i) the unit that directs the sequence of system operations, selects instructions and interprets them; 10.Program j) a device with a complex network of electronic circuits that can process information, make decisions, and replace people in routine tasks. 3. Определите неличные формы глагола, содержащиеся в следующих предложениях. Переведите их. 1. The problems to be studied are of great importance. 2. The problem studied helped us understand many things. 3. To study the problem we must make some experiments. 4. To study the problem means to give answers to many questions. 5. Having studied the problem we could answer many questions. 6. The problem studied is unlikely to be of great interest. 7. Scientists studying the problem made a lot of experiments to get answers to the required questions. 8. The problem to have been studied last year will not help us to solve our task now. 9. Having been well prepared for the examination the pupils could answer all the questions the teacher asked them. 10. The problem to be discussed at the meeting requires careful consideration. 4. Выполните перевод предложений. I. 1. Accuracy is one of the major items in judging a control system. The higher the accuracy of the system, the less errors the system makes. 2. The digital computer employs the principle of counting units, digits, and hence, if properly guided, gives answers which have a high degree of accuracy. 3. Electronic computers can choose which of several different operations are the right ones to make in given circumstances. Never before has mankind had such a powerful tool available. 4. In many cases man has proved to be but an imperfect controller of the machines he has created. Thus, it is natural, that wherever necessary, we should try to replace the human controller by some form of automatic controller. 5. It is necessary to draw a distinction between calculating machines and computers, the former requiring manual control for each arithmetic step and the latter having the power to solve a complete problem automatically. II. 1. Many servomechanisms and regulators are known to be composed of a number of control elements connected in series, the output of one being used as the input to the next. 2. We expect a computer to work for at least several hours without a fault; that is to say, supposing a speed of one thousand operations per second, to perform more than ten million operations. 3. Digital programming implies the preparation of a problem for a digital computer by putting it in a form which the computer can understand and then entering this program into the computer storage unit. A problem to be solved by a digital computer must be expressed in mathematical terms that the computer can work with. 4. Among all forms of magnetic storage, magnetic tapes were the first to be proposed in connection with digital computers. 5. Programming a computer involves analysing the problem to be solved and a plan to solve it. 5. Прочтите тексты (по вариантам) и составьте короткую аннотацию на каждый из них. 1. The WORLD-WIDE WEB People have dreamt of a universal information database since late nineteen forties. In this database, not only would the data be accessible to people around the world, but it would also easily link to other pieces of information, so that only the most important data would be quickly found by a user. Only recently the new technologies have made such systems possible. The most popular system currently in use is the World-Wide Web (WWW) which began in March 1989. The Web is an Internet-based computer network that allows users on one computer to access information stored on another through the world-wide network. As the popularity of the Internet increases, people become more aware of its colossal potential. The World-Wide Web is a product of the continuous search for innovative ways of sharing information resources. The WWW project is based on the principle of universal readership: "if information is available, then any person should be able to access it from anywhere in the world." The Web's implementation follows a standard client-server model. In this model, a user relies on a program (the client) to connect to a remote machine (the server), where the data is stored. The architecture of the WWW is the one of clients, such as Netscape, Mosaic, or Lynx, "which know how to present data but not what its origin is, and servers, which know how to extract data", but are ignorant of how it will be presented to the user. One of the main features of the WWW documents is their hypertext structure. On a graphic terminal, for instance, a particular reference can be represented by underlined text, or an icon. "The user clicks on it with the mouse, and the referenced document appears." This method makes copying of information unnecessary: data needs only to be stored once, and all referenced to it can be linked to the original document. 2. SUCCESS of the WWW Set off in 1989, the WWW quickly gained great popularity among Internet users. What is the reason for the immense success of the World-Wide Web? Perhaps, it can be explained by CERN's attitude towards the development of the project. As soon as the basic outline of the WWW was complete, CERN made the source code for its software publicly available. CERN has been encouraging collaboration by academic and commercial parties since the onset of the project, and by doing so it got millions of people involved in the growth of the Web. The system requirements for running a WWW server are minimal, so even administrators with limited funds had a chance to become information providers. Because of the intuitive nature of hypertext, many inexperienced computer users were able to connect to the network. Furthermore, the simplicity of the Hyper Text Markup Language, used for creating interactive documents, allowed these users to contribute to the expanding database of documents on the Web. Also, the nature of the World-Wide Web provided a way to interconnect computers running different operating systems, and display information created in a variety of existing media formats. In short, the possibilities for hypertext in the world-wide environment are endless. With the computer industry growing at today's pace, no one knows what awaits us in the 21st century. Note _______________________________________________ CERN was originally named after its founding body the 'Conseil Europeen pour la Recherche Nucleaire,' and is now called 'European Laboratory for Particle Physics'. 3. A BRIEF HISTORY of the INTERNET In 1973 the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA) initiated a research program to investigate techniques and technologies for interlinking packet networks of various kinds. The objective was to develop communication protocols which would allow networked computers to communicate transparently across multiple, linked packet networks. This was called the Internetting project and the system of networks which emerged from the research was known as the "Internet" (Intercontinental Network). During the course of its evolution, particularly after 1989, the Internet system began to intergrate support for other protocol suites into its basic networking fabric. By the end of 1991 the Internet has grown to include some 5000 networks in over three dozen countries, serving over 700,000 host computers used by over 4,000,000 people. The bulk of the system today is made up of private networking facilities in education and research institutions, business and in government organizations across the globe. A secretariat has been created to manage the day-to-day function of the Internet Activities Board (IAB) and Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF). IETF meets three times a year in plenary and in approximately 50 working groups convene at intermediate times by electronic mail, teleconferencing and at face-to-face meetings. There are a number of Network Information Centres (NICs) located throughout the Internet to serve its users with documentation, guidance, advice and assistance. As the Internet continues to grow internationally, the need for high quality NIC functions increases. Although the initial community of users of the Internet were drawn from the ranks of computer science and engineering its users now comprise a wide range of disciplines in the sciences, arts, letters, business, military and government administration. 6. Quiz-game "Do you know more about computers"? (Divide into two groups and give answers to even (1 gr.) and odd (2 gr.) question numbers.) 1. What are the main functional units of a digital computer? 2. What types of storage do you know? 3. What is a binary number system? 4. What is storage media? 5. How is storage capacity measured (in what units)? 6. What do you know of electronic memories? 7. What can you say about electromechanical memories? 8. How do you understand the term "access time"? 9. What is RAM / ROM? 10. What storage devices do you know? 11. What is the function of the CPU? 12. What two functional units does the CPU consist of? 13. What components does control unit include? 14. What devices does the arithmetic-logical unit have? 15. What is the ALU function? 16. What is the function of CU? 17. What is the heart (brain) of a microprocessor? 18. What is the purpose of input devices? 19. How do you understand the term "input-output environment"? 20. What groups can I/O devices be classified according to their speed? 21. Name devices used for inputting information. 22. What is touch pad? 23. What is a scanner used for? 24. What types of printers do you know? 25. When did the first personal computer appear? 26. What differs PC from large computer systems? 27. What is a personal computer? 28. What are the main spheres of PC applications? 29. What professions are in great need of computers? 30. What is modem and what is it used for? 31. What is programming? 32. What is a program? 33. What techniques for planning the program logic do you know? 34. What do you understand by pseudocode? 35. What is a code? 36. What is the foundation of any programming language? 37. What programming languages do you know? 38. What is FORTRAN used for? Decode it. 39. What does COBOL serve for? Decode it. 40. What is WWW? |
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