Методические рекомендации по чтению на английском языке для студентов 2 курса факультета
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Lapta Lapta, a folk bat-and-ball game, mentioned in many Rus. literary works. The game is played by 2 teams of 5-15 players each. The pitch is 70-80cm long and 30-40cm wide. The ball is 8-10cm in diameter, the bat (Lapta) is 70-80cm long. The batting team hits the ball out from behind one end line of the pitch serving as a ‘home line’. After hitting the ball the batter or a few players of the batting team start to run to the other end line, and then return to the home line. A successful homerun scores 1pt. for the batting team. The fielding team tries to catch the ball on the fly or pick it up off the ground and then get one of the runners out by throwing the ball at him. After a runner is out the fielding team scores a point and the teams change sides on the pitch. The team which scores more points within a specified number of changes wins the game. Fencing Fencing, a sporting competition using human experience in the use arms formerly for defense and military purposes. Thanks to the design of the weapons and protective clothing injuries or death are eliminated. A scoring system, different for each weapon, is used to decide the winner. Three weapons are used in modern fencing: the foil, the epee, and the sabre. In the past the rapier was a separate category, where the weapon was the traditional Fr. rapier – a sword with 2 cutting edges, which in the sports version was a sword with a cup-shaped hilt and a long slender blade with a blunt tip. In the past there were attempts at including >BAYONET FENCING in fencing, but the genesis of bayonet fencing is different and, moreover, the bayonet is still used for military purposes. Fencing bouts are conducted on a strip approximately 2m wide and 12m long in foil, and 24m long in sabre, epee and bayonet fencing. Different rules apply to each weapon. In foil, points are scored for hits with the tip. Only hits on the torso are counted. The first fencer to score 5 hits wins the bout. If during 5 min. neither of the fencers scores 5 hits, the winner is the fencer with the greater number of hits. In epee, the entire body, head to foot is a valid target. The first fencer to score 5 hits in 6 min. wins the bout. If none of the fencers scores 5 hits in that time, the winner is the fencer with the greater number of hits. In sabre, hits, or points, may be scored by cutting in a slashing motion with the edge of the blade. Scoring is similar to that employed in foil – the first fencer to score 5 hits wins the bout and if neither fencer scores 5 hits in 5 min., the winner is the one with the greater number of hits. HISTORY. The history of fencing proper is divided into 2 periods: the first, in which side arms were an important element of warfare and exercises and training during times of peace were meant to improve the military skills; and the other, in which the skill of fencing was not required in the army as new fighting techniques were developed and fencing lost its military character. In warfare ancient fencing was a basic military skill. Probably the oldest artefact is the bronze sword of Saragon, ruler of the Kingdom of Ur in S Mesopotamia (from about 5000 BC). The Divine Sword (Rusandjino Tsurugi), presumably owned by the Jap. prince Yamoto Takeruno Mikoto, is about 2,000 years old. In the Mediterranean region side arms were first used in Egypt, where wooden staves were used in fencing exercises (>PALCATY). Short swords were also known to the Greeks and Romans, however, the most popular in the Roman army was a short sword borrowed from the Celtic peoples, consisting of a long, sharp-edged or pointed blade fixed in a hilt (unlike the traditional swords in which the blade was of equal width lengthwise). The Celtic sword was used by Roman gladiators (>GLADIATORIAL FIGHTS). In the Middle Ages the sword was heavy, often held in both hands. It was used in war and in the so-called wager of battle (a pledge to do battle to decide guilt or innocence by single combat). Before the fight the duellers or their seconds agreed what would be permitted in the fight and what would not. Some texts of such agreements have been preserved. In Poland, for example, the written contract for the wager of battle between Mikolaj Thurski and Mikolaj Smolikowski from 1511, reads as follows: Since Mikolaj Thurski of birth, party of the first part, and Mikolay Smolikowski of noble birth, party of the second part, have come to us for reason of a conflict that they have come to, we having heard the of both of them, have allowed them to fight a duel in our courtyard. As regards the armor, weapons, horses, place and hour of this has been clearly written in this contract engraved in this wood. And so when fighting following: the breastplate must be made of metal sheet but it should not have metal sleeves but only sleeves of leather; likewise the wrist guards and knee-pads from the knees down to the insoles of the shoes must not have armor plates but only legs of cloth and simple leather shoes and spurs. As regards the head, nape or neck-each should cover them with a tin hat or a fur cap; the best cover they can get. And the weapons: first they must have spears, a sword and an axe and no other weapon, small or large such as a knife, misericord or a battle axe. And each must have a horse with proper harness – a bridle, well fastened saddle without anything which could throw the rider or injure the opponent or his horse such as a blade sticking out from the side or any other implement of that kind, which must not be there. And the appointed time, that is the day and place for that duel we decide to be in our courtyard, from this Tuesday in two weeks, that is on the first Tuesday after St. Lucia at six in the afternoon when each of them must appear in the tilt yards with the objects mentioned, ready mounted as stated above. At the time when a heavy sword was used in Europe, the light-armored Arab cavalry used a light sword with a curved blade, and damascened steel contributed to the development of the armorer’s craft, characterized by rich and sophisticated ornamentation. This weapon came to Europe via the Iberian Peninsula. In the 15th -17th cent. it was brought to Europe together with the armies of the Ottoman empire, via Hungary and Poland, two countries which knew a curved sword, the prototype of the later saber, brought there in the late Middle Ages by Asiatic peoples – the Ottoman Turks and Mongols. After gunpowder came into general use, heavy defensive armor became obsolete, and the sword became a defensive as well as offensive weapon. The basics of fencing were shaped in the second half of the 18th cent. and throughout the 19th cent. After WWI fencing proved useless in the army, but gained importance as a sport. WWI proved once and for all the uselessness of side arms, even in the cavalry, and this spelled the final end to the military character of fencing. However, the relation between bayonet fencing and the military continued until the mid 1950s. Marxbruder Gild in Lowenberg (Germany), estab. in 1383, is probably the oldest fencing association. Its members used heavy medieval swords. Lighter swords were used by the members of the Gessellschaft der Fechter, established in 1570, and the St. Michael’s Brotherhood in Ghent. The latter is still active and organizes prestigious international fencing competitions. During the Restoration, the art of fencing became one of the most important elements of a noble education. In the 16th cent. most fencing schools were located in Italy. The most famous was established by A. Marozzo. The skill of Ital. fencers was known and valued in all Europe. In 1599 the famous treaty on fencing was written by an Eng. Fencer, G. Silver, Paradoxes of Defence, in which the author stressed parrying and immediate riposte; so far attack had been the basic fencing technique. Towards the end of the 16th cent. Fr. schools offered advanced level fencing training. In 1570 H. Saint-Didier increased interest in fencing terminology, naming individual movements and positions. Initial attempts to protect the fencers against injury were made at the beginning of the 16th cent. In 1515 a Spaniard by the name of G. de Condova designed a hand guard. The foil, a long thin sword, came into being in Italy in the 17th cent. The development of the as a sporting weapon resulted in a number of improvements, which contributed to the greater safety of the fencers (a leather tip on the blade’s end the first types of face masks). A prototype of the fencing facemask was designed after 1750 by the Frenchman, La Boissiere. These improvements led to changes to the other weapons – sabre, epee and rapier, which had been very dangerous until that time. The Eng. fencer J. Godfrey used to say: ‘all the knowledge I have I got from the wounds on my head’ (1747). The 19th cent. brought further progress in the improvement of side arms; they became lighter and more flexible, and military features were eliminated. The basic types of protective clothing were designed in the second half of the 19th cent. Impartial refereeing was first employed at the epee competition in 1932, when the weapon was rigged to an electric device that registered the hits. Such an electric device was employed for the first time at the bayonet fencing competitions in 1952, and in 1957 at the foil competitions. The sabre was last in adopting this device (at the 1989 W. Ch.) because of problems with closing the electric circuit when the hit was made. Until the end of the 19th cent. the main fencing centers were in the army and townspeople’s associations, and sports clubs in Great Britain. After 1848 continental Europe witnessed a rapid development of fencing in townspeople’s associations, particularly in Germany, where the first fencing clubs were established in Hanover (1862), Offenbach (1864), Frankfurt and Cologne (1865). Sabre and foil were included in the Ol.G. in 1896 and epee in 1900. Women’s foil became an Olympic event in 1924 and epee in 1996. A wooden stave event was featured in the Ol.G. only once, in 1904. A mixed tournament for professional fencers and amateurs was held at the Ol.G. in 1896-1900 in the foil and at the 1900 Ol.G. in the epee. An individual junior tournament in the foil was also held only once (1904). The International Fencing Federation (Federation Internationale d’Escrime, FIE) was established in 1913. The FIE began organizing E. Ch. in 1921, in which only men’s epee events were held, followed by sabre (1922) and foil (1926). Women’s foil was added to the E.Ch. in 1929. In 1937, E. Ch. were replaced with W.Ch. (in Olympic years they were held as part of the Olympic tournament). Women’s epee was added to the W.Ch. as late 1989. Initially the French dominated all the men’s events (E.-H. Gravelotte, G. Alibert), and the Greeks to a lesser extent (sabre – I. Georgiadis, foil – P. Pierrakos-Mavromichalis). Cuban R. Forst was twice Olympic champion in the epee (1900 and 1904). Representatives of France, Italy and Hungary dominated fencing until fencers from the USSR and Poland appeared in the 1950s and 1960s. Belgium, Germany, Sweden, Switzerland and Great Britain enjoyed Occasional successes. Savate Savate, a folk variant of fighting, with foot kicks dominating and with simultaneous use of fists [Fr. Savate – an old shoe]. Historically, and in its modern version, savate is similar to >THAI BOXING and modern >KICKBOXING. History. Some sport historians derive savate from the Celtic past of present-day France, where there was a form of fighting in which the competitors kicked each other (cf. Brit.>SHIN-KICKING). Savate development during numerous fights in the narrow streets of Fr. Towns, particularly Paris and Marseille. The first attempts at informal codification of savate were made in the 18th cent. when in many European wars and the seven year war, fought in South America between the colonists and the English and French Armies, many French soldiers were taken prisoners of war by the English. The latter were looking for something that could occupy their prisoners and allowed them to fight. Fighting development particularly on ships which served as floating prisoner-of-war camps. It is quite possible that at time savate made its first borrowings from Eng. >BOXING. In the mid 18th cent. the best savate fighter was a dancer by the name of Batist or Batiste. He is considered the inventor of a fighting technique in which kicks above the waistline were inflicted. Some other last names have been retained since that time, spelled with no respect for the grammar of the Fr. Language, which indicate their plebeian origin: Fanfan, Fransua, Champan, Karp, Minion, Rauchero, Sabatier. The very number of these names is indicative of the great popularity of savate in the 18th cent., unfortunately also among criminals, who treated savate as a skill very useful in their profession. A different var. of fighting was development at the same time in France, namely >CHAUSSON. At the turn of the 18th cent. both types started to mix and it is difficult to separate the two in historical records, particularly as authors describing them used the two names interchangeably. In the old original formula savate developed until 1824, when M. Casseux (born 1794) published the first systematic manual of street fighting and self-defence, with an extensive section on savate. In 1825 Casseux opened the first official savate school. One of his students was Charles Lecour, who in 1830 opened his own school, attended by townspeople, industrialists and even artists. After a fight lost to a Brit. Boxer Owen Swift in 1830 Lecour started studies on boxing in England. Upon his return to France he introduced elements of Eng. Boxing into savate, calling the new var. French boxing. Soon French Boxing dominated other varieties of fighting. Because of the obvious links to the tradition of savate it was often called Fr. Boxing savate (savate boxe Françoise). At the turn of the 19th cent. systematic regional and Fr. championships were held, continued until 1939, where the last Fr. championships in savate were held. In the 1960s attempts were made to restore the old rank to Fr. boxing, and also to savate. In 1965 P. Baruzi organized the National Committee of French Boxing in France, which soon had 30 affiliated clubs. In 1976 the Committee transformed into the National Federation if Fr. Boxing and when the original traditions of savate were adopted and the federation became more active in other countries, in 1985 it changed its name to the International Federation of Fr. Boxing Savate. The most dynamically development savate organization include, e.g. the Californian Association of Savate in the USA. Savate is practiced by both men and women. Thai Boxing Thai muay thai, a national sport of Thailand in which blows can be delivered not only with the fists but also with the feet, shinbones, knees, and elbows. Boxers are barefoot, wearing only loose shorts and boxing gloves. Points are scored solely for kicks; hands and arms are only employed to prepare hits executed with the legs and feet. The division into weight categories is similar to that in > Boxing. The bout is preceded by performing 2 rituals: wai kru, consisting of a sequence of bows which express respect for the master and the school, and ram Muay, a form of meditative dance, the nature of which indicates the affiliation with a given school. Both rituals are at the same time a form of warming up and preparing for the bout. The bout itself is accompanied by music performed on a drum, dulcimer and Javanese pipe, which is coordinated with the rhythm of the fighting boxers. HISTORY. This emigrated from China in the 13th cent. When they were dislodged by Mongolian invaders. For centuries they fought against the neighboring Khmers and Vietnamese. Thai martial arts stem from Chin.> GONGFU but evolved in the course of incessant wars, acquiring a specific character. Originally, martial arts with the use of weapons (today >KRABI-KRABONG) and hand-to-hand techniques were practiced together. The earliest historical record concerning Muay Thai dates back to 1560 and describes a fight between Thai Naresuen and a Burmese pretender to the throne. The fight lasted for a couple of hours and terminated with the death of the Burmese contender. Naresuen then started to organize Muai Thai tournaments, which contributed substantially to the popularization of this discipline. The golden age of Thai boxing was the reign of Pra-Choo-Sua, called the Tiger King. He travelled across the country in disguise, taking part in various local tournaments and winning them one after another. Since that time, Thai boxing has been an element of military training in all Thai schools. In the 1930s the principles of trad. Thai boxing were re-modelled after boxing (e.g. the introduction boxing gloves), which made the sport safer. Currently Thai boxing is gaining on popularity around the world. |
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