Учебное пособие содержит: тексты из оригинальной литературы, посвященные теме «Компьютеры и информационные системы»
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8. Прочтите текст и объясните, что представляют собой языки программирования. Text 2. PROGRAMMING LANGUAGES Let's assume that we have studied the problem, designed a \ logical plan (our flowchart or pseudocode), and are now ready \ to write the program instructions. The process of writing pro- j gram instructions is called coding. The instructions will be writ- . ten on a form called a coding form.^The instructions we write ■ will be recorded in a machine-readable form using a keypunch, ; key-to-tape, or key-to-disk, or entered directly into computer ; memory through a terminal keyboard. The computer cannot understand instructions written in just ■ v any old way. The instructions must be written according to a set ! of rules. These rules are the foundation of a programming Ian- j guage. A programming language must convey the logical steps ■* of the program plan in such a way that the control unit of the \ CPU can interpret and follow the instructions. Programming j languages have improved throughout the years, just as comput- I. er hardware has improved. They have progressed from machine- \ 151 Unit 11. Computer Programming oriented languages that use strings of binary Is and 0s to problem-oriented languages that use common mathematical and/or English terms. There are over 200 problem-oriented languages. The most common of them are COBOL, FORTRAN, PL/I, RPG, BASIC, PASCAL. COBOL COBOL was the most widely used business-oriented programming language. Its name is an acronym for Common Јlisi-ncss-Oriented Zanguage. COBOL was designed to solve problems that are oriented toward data handling and input-output operations. Of course, COBOL can perform arithmetic operations as well, but its greatest flexibility is in data handling. COBOL also was designed as a self-documenting language. Self-documenting languages are those that do not require a great deal of explanation in order to be understood by someone reading the program instructions. The self-documenting aspect of COBOL is made possible by its sentencelike structure and the very generous maximum symbolic field-name length of 30 characters. With a field-name length of up to 30 characters, the name can clearly identify the field and its purpose. FORTRAN IV The FORTRAN IV language is oriented toward solving problems of a mathematical nature. The name FORTRAN comes from the combination of the words formula translation. The version of FORTRAN IV has been designed as algebra-based programming language. Any formula or those mathematical relationships that can be expressed algebraically can easily be expressed as a FORTRAN instruction. FORTRAN is the most commonly used language for scientific applications. PL/I PL/I stands for programming language I. It was designed as a general-purpose language incorporating features similar to COBOL for data handling instructions and features similar to FORTRAN for mathematical instructions. PL/I is much more than a combination of the good features of both COBOL and FORTRAN, as it has many capabilities that are unique. Yet, although PL/I is one of the most versatile and the most powerful of the programming languages, it is not the most commonly  Английский язык. Оыюяыквивыотерной грамотности 252u  sed. COBOL and FORTRAN have been available for a longer period of time than PL/I, and many more users work with those languages.9. Просмотрите текст еще раз и ответьте на вопросы, ис пользуя информацию текста. 1. What is the process of writing instructions called? 2. What is a code? 3. How must instructions be written? 4. What is the foundation of any programming language? 5. How was the development of programming languages progressing throughout the years? 6. What are the most common problem-oriented languages? 7. What is COBOL? 8. What functions was COBOL designed for? 9. What does FORTRAN serve for? 10. What capabilities has PL/I? 10. Найдите в тексте английские эквиваленты следующих словосочетаний: Языки программирования; блок-схема; кодированная форма; вид, удобочитаемый для компьютера; в соответствии с набором правил; представить логические шаги программы; таким образом; совершенствовать языки программирования; машинно-ориентированные языки; проблемно-ориентированные языки; обычный термин; язык для программирования экономических задач; обработка информации; операции по вводу-выводу данных; гибкость; идентифицировать поле и его цели; решение проблем математического характера; сферы научного применения; универсальный язык; включать свойства; уникальные возможности; многофункциональный и самый мощный из языков программирования. 11. Найдите в текстах 1 и 2 слова, близкие по значению следующим: Nouns: command; line; characteristic; form; evolution; enumeration; mistake; method; character; manual (instruction); consumption; storage; basics; abbreviation; interpretation; correlation; possibility. Verbs: include; inform; process; protect; apply; permit; stress; suppose; learn; make up; write; key; explain; define; perfect; advance; decide; execute; demand. 153 Unit 11. Computer Programming A djectives: full; incorrect; usual; necessary; accessible; required; considerable; floppy; possible.12. Переведите условные сложноподчиненные предложе ния. Обратите внимание на форму выражения разных типов условия. I. 1. If you try very hard you can master any language. 2. If you want to master any language you must know at least three thousand words. 3. You will improve your pronunciation if you read aloud every day. 4. Time will be saved if one uses a com puter. 5. If you learn all the words of the lesson you will write your test successfully. 6. If you or I add up two numbers of six figures without a calculator, it will take us a lot of time. II. 1. It would be a good thing if you didn't smoke. 2. If the earth didn't rotate it wouldn't have the shape of a ball. 3. If I had the time I should help you to solve the problem. But I must be off. 4.1 should translate the article without difficulty if I knew English well. 5. If I were in your place I should learn to speak English fluently. 6. Were you asked to explain why addition is performed the way it is, you would probably have to think for a while before answering. HI. 1.1 decided to stay at home last night. I would have gone out if I hadn't been so tired. 2. Had he not been busy, he wouldn't have missed that conference. 3. Why didn't you phone me yesterday? I would have helped you. 4. If you had attended preliminary courses, you would have passed you examinations more successfully. 5. Had the manager had this information before, he would have acted differently. 6. The binary system is particulary appropriate to the nature of an electric machine; if it had not existed, computer designers would have had to invent it. 13. Выполните перевод следующих текстов письменно по вариантам. 1. RPG II Programming language RPG II is a business-oriented language. The name stands for report program generator. RPG is considerably different from other programming languages. RPG is, in effect, a large prewritten program. The programmer simply indicates the options within the master program that are to be used and, through a set of indicators, when they are to be used.  Английский язык. Основы компьютерной грамотности 154R  PG was originally referred to as a "quick-and-dirty" programming language. That is, it is quick for the programmer to write and relatively inefficient in its use of main storage and processing speed. The latest version of RPG, called RPG II, greatly improved the language and gave it additional capabilities. RPG has an advantage over COBOL in that it requires less training for a programmer to become proficient in it. For this reason, RPG is commonly used on many smaller computers and in small business.2. BASIC BASIC is the acronym for beginner's all-purpose symbolic instruction code. It was developed in Dartmouth College as an easy-to-learn programming language for students and inexperienced programmers. Its key design goal is simplicity. BASIC has become a very popular language in systems where many users share the use of a computer through terminals and it has become a universal language for personal computers. The language BASIC is mathematically oriented, that is, its typical use is to solve problems of a mathematical nature. Because BASIC programs are usually executed from a terminal or microcomputer where input is entered through a keyboard and printed output is relatively slow, problems of a business nature requiring large volumes of input-output data are usually not practical. 3. PASCAL PASCAL was invented in 1970 by Professor Niklaus Wirth of Zurich, Switzerland. It was named after the mathematician Blaise Pascal, who invented one of the earliest practical calculators. PASCAL is a mathematically oriented programming language and, as such, is most commonly used in mathematics, engineering, and computer science departments of colleges and universities. This language is somewhat unusual in that it was designed to be a structured language. This means that the program must be written in logical modules which are in turn called by a main controlling module. Much of PASCAL'S popularity is due to work done at the University of California at San Diego, where PASCAL has been implemented on several different computers including microcomputers. 155 Unit 11. Computer Programming 1 4. Прочтите тексты (по вариантам) и составьте рефераты на английском языке.1. The conversion of symbolic languages As we see, most of the symbolic languages are oriented toward the particular application areas of business or science (math). The one problem with all symbolic languages is that none of them can be understood by a computer. The symbolic languages may say AP, ADD, or use a "plus" sign to indicate an addition step, but the only thing that means addition to a computer is its binary machine code. Wfe have symbolic programs that are relatively easy for humans to understand, but they cannot be understood by computers. On the other hand, we have machine code that is understood by the computer, but it is difficult for humans to use. The solution is a translator that translates the symbolic program into machine code. The translator allows the human to work with relatively easy-to-understand symbolic languages and it allows the computer to follow instructions in machine code. The translation of symbolic instructions to machine code is accomplished through the use of a program called a language processor. There are three types of language processors. They are called assemblers, compilers, and interpreters. Each translates symbolic instructions to machine code, but each does it differently. (The translator is a program itself. It is part of a group of programs, called the operating systems, that help us to use the computer.) 2. Running the computer program The operating system is a collection of program provided by the computer's manufacturer that allows us to shedule jobs for the computer, to translate source programs into object programs, to sort data stored on secondary storage devices, and to copy data from any input device to any output device. These programs are called control programs, language programs and utility programs. The control program (often called the supervisor, monitor, or executive) is a main-storage-resident program. Its functions are to schedule jobs, shedule input and output for our programs, and to monitor the execution of our programs. Английский язык. Основы компьютерной грамотности 156 T he language processors are programs that translate source programs into object programs. There are three types of language processors: assemblers, compilers, and interpreters. Each language has its own language processor.The service programs are programs that are commonly used in all data processing centers. They have functions that are required by everyone using a computer. Examples of service programs include linkage editors to prepare object programs for execution, a librarian to catalog programs into a library area on magnetic disc, utility programs to transfer data from device to device, and sort-merge programs for sorting data on magnetic tape or disk. 3. Testing the computer program There are two kinds of errors or bugs with which programmers must deal. The first type is the coding error. Such errors are syntax errors that prevent the language processor from successfully translating the source program to object program code. The language processor identifies the nature and the location of the error on the source program listing, so these errors are relatively easy to find and correct. The second type of bug is the logic error. The computer program can be successfully translated, but the program does not produce the desired results. These errors are generally much more difficult to find and to correct than are coding errors. Logic errors can be avoided through careful planning of the program logic, but it is the programmer's responsibility to test thoroughly all of the program's functions, in order to verify that the program performs according to specifications. There are many tools provided to the programmer to help in debugging the program logic. These tools are called debug packages or tracing routines. They assist the programmer in following the logic by printing out calculation results and field values used in making logic decisions in the program. In a few cases it may be necessary to use a memory dump — a printout of the instructions and date held in the computer's memory — in order to find the cause of logic errors. ИТОГОВЫЙ ТЕСТ 1 . Подберите вместо пропусков подходящее по смыслуслово. 1. The most common for planning the program logic are flowcharting and pseudocode. a) technologies; b) technics; c) techniques 2. was designed for dealing with the complicated mathematical calculations of scientists and engineers, a) COBOL; b) FORTRAN; c) PL/I 3. is the foundation of any programming languages. a) a set of rules; b) a group of numbers; c) a lot of instructions 4. I / О match the physical and electrical charac teristics of input-output devices. a) interchanges; b) interfaces; c) interpretations 5. Letter-quality, dot-matrix and ink-jet printers are all printers. a) line; b) page; c) character 6. The most common device used to transfer information from the user to the computer is the . a) keyboard; b) printer; c) modem 7. Input-output units link the computer to its external a  ) requirement; b) development; c) environment8. I / О devices can be classified according to their speed, visual displays being devices. a) high-speed; b)medium-speed; c) low-speed 2. Согласуйте слова в левой колонке с их интерпретаци ей, предложенной справа. 1. Computer a) an electronic device accepting data pro- cessing results from the computer system; 2. Input b) the unit performing arithmetic opera- tions called for in the instructions; Английский язык. Основы компьютерной грамотности 158 3 . Output с) the unit coordinating all the activities ofvarious components of the computer. It reads information, enterpretes instructions, performs operations, etc.; 4. Software d) a set of programs designed to control the operation of a computer; 5. Hardware e) lists of instructions followed by the con- trol unit of the CPU: 6. Storage f) an electronic device keying information into the computer; 7. CPU g) the unit holding all data to be processed, intermediate and final results of processing; 8. CU h) visible units, physical components of a data processing system; 9. ALU i) the unit that directs the sequence of sys- tem operations, selects instructions and interpretes them; 10. Program j) a device with a complex network of elec- tronic circuits that can process information, make decisions, and replace people in routine tasks. |
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