М. П. Ивашкин, В. В. Сдобников, А. В. Селяев

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Allusion. Allusion is a brief reference to some literary or historical event commonly known. The speaker (writer) is not explicit about what he means: he merely mentions some detail of what he thinks analogous in fiction or history to the topic discussed. Consider the following example:

«If the International paid well, Aitken took good care he got his pound of flesh...» (Chase).

Here the author alludes to Shakespeare’s Shylock, a usurer in «The Merchant of Venice» who lends Antonio three thousand ducats for three months on condition at on expiration of the term, if the money is not paid back, Shylock is entitled to «an equal pound» of Antonio’s «fair flesh».

Antonomasia. Metaphorical antonomasia is the use of the name of a historical, literary, mythological or biblical personage applied to a person whose characteristic features resemble those of the well-known original. Thus, a traitor may be referred to as Brutus, a ladies’ man deserves the name of Don Juan.

Irony. Irony is a transfer based upon the opposition of the two notions: the notion named and the notion meant. Here we observe the greatest qualitative shift, if compared with metonymy (transfer by contiguity) and metaphor (transfer by similarity).

Irony is used with the aim of critical evaluation of the thing spoken about. E.g.:

«What a noble illustrations of the tender laws of this favoured country! - they let the paupers go to sleep!» (Dickens).

In oral speech irony is made prominent by emphatic intonation, mimic and gesticulation. In writing, the most typical signs are inverted commas or italics.
FIGURES OF CO-OCCURENCE
The figures of co-occurence are formed by the combination in speech of at least two independent meanings. They are divided into figures of identity, figures of inequality and figures of contrast.
Figures of Identity
This group of figures simile and synonymic repetition are referred.

Simile. It is an explicit statement concerning the similarity, the affinity of two different notions. The purpose of this confrontation of the names of two different objects is to characterize vividly one of the two. One of the two co-occurring denominations is the name of the object really spoken about; the other denomination is that of an object not connected with the first in objective reality but having certain features in common with the first object. E.g.:

«That fellow (first object) is LIKE an old fox (second object)».

The existence of common features is always explicitly expressed in a simile, mostly by means of the words «as», «like» and others.

There are two type of simile. In one of them the common feature of the two objects is mentioned:

«He is as beautiful as a weathercock».

In the second type the common feature is not mentioned; the hearer is supposed to guess what features the two objects have in common:

«My heart is like a singing bird».

Care should be taken not to confuse the simile and any sort of elementary logical comparison. A simile presupposes confrontation of two objects belonging to radically different semantic spheres; a comparison deals with two objects of the same semantic sphere:

«She can sing like a professional actress» (logical comparison);

«She sings like a nightingale» (simile).

Synonymic repetition. To figures of identity we may refer the use of synonyms denoting the same object of reality and occurring in the given segment of text. We should distinguish:

the use of synonyms of precision,
the use of synonymic variations.

Synonyms of precision. Two or more synonyms may follow one another to characterize the object in a more precise way. The second synonym expresses some additional feature of the notion; both synonyms permit a fuller expression of it. E.g.:

«Joe was a mild, good-natured, sweet-tempered, easy-going, foolish fellow» (Dickens).

Synonymic variations. Frequently synonyms or synonymic expressions are used instead of the repetition of the same word or the same expression to avoid the monotonousness of speech, as excessive repetition of the same word makes the style poor. E.g.:

«He brought home numberless prizes. He told his mother countless stories every night about his school companions» (Thackeray).
Figures of Inequality
A very effective stylistic device is created by special arrangement in the text of words or phrases, or sentences which differ from one another by the degree of property expressed or by the degree of emotional intensity. In accordance with the order of strong and weak elements in the text two figures on inequality are distinguished: climax, or gradation, and anti-climax, or bathos.

Climax (gradation) means such an arrangement of ideas (notions) in which what precedes is inferior to what follows. The first element is the weakest; the subsequent elements gradually rise in strength. E.g.:

«I am sorry. I am so very sorry. I am so extremely sorry» (Chesterton).

Anti-climax (bathos). By anti-climax, any deviation of the order of ideas found in climax is usually meant. But it should be underlined that anti-climax consists in weakening the emotional effect by adding unexpectedly weaker elements to the strong ones which were mentioned above. Usually anti-climax is employed for humouristic purposes. E.g.:

«The woman who could face the very devil himself - or a mouse - loses her grip and goes all to pieces in front of a flash of lightning» (Twain).
Figures of Contrast
These figures are formed by intentional combination in speech of ideas, incompatible with one another. The figures in question are antithesis and oxymoron.

Antithesis is a confrontation of two notions which underlines the radical difference between them.

Two words or expressions of the opposite meanings may be used to characterize the same object. E.g.:

«It was the best of times, it was the worst of times, it was the age of wisdom, it was the age of foolishness...» (Dickens).

Antithesis may be used to depict two objects with opposite characteristics. E.g.:

«His fees were high; his lessons were light...» (O’Henry).

Two objects may be opposed as incompatible by themselves and each of them obtain a characteristic opposite to that of the other. E.g.:

«For the old struggle - mere stagnation, and in place of danger and death, the dull monotony of security and the horror of an unending decay!» (Leacock).

Oxymoron. Oxymoron consists in ascribing a property to an object incompatible, inconsistent with that property. It is a logical collision of words syntactically connected but incongruent in their meaning. E.g.:

«O brawling love! O loving hate!»

(Shakespeare)

EXERCISES
Exercise 1. State the type of each figure of speech in the following cases:

They swarmed up in front of Sherburn’s palings as thick as they could jam together, and you couldn’t hear yourself think for the noise (Twain).
The face wasn’t a bad one; it had what they called charm (Galsworthy).
It (the book) has a - a - power, so to speak, a very exceptional power; in fact, one may say, without exaggeration it is the most powerful book of the month... (Leacock).
Large houses are still occupied while weavers’ cottages stand empty... (Gaskell).
I looked at the First of the Barons. He was eating salad - taking a whole lettuce leaf on his fork and absorbing it slowly, rabbit-wise - a fascinating process to watch (Mansfield).
He had an egg-like head, frog-like jaws... (Chesterton).

7. Slowly, silently, now the moon

Walks the night in her silvery shoon,

This way and that she peers and sees

Silver fruit upon silver trees...

(De La Mare)

Wherever the kettledrums were heard, the peasant threw his bag of rice on his shoulder, tied his small savings in his girdle, and fled with his wife and children to the mountains or the jungles, and the milder neighbourhood of the hyena and the tiger (Macauley).
He is the Napoleon of crime (Conan Doyle).
We have all read a statement... we have all, I say, been favoured by perusing a remark... (Thackeray).
The Major again pressed to his blue eyes the tips of the fingers that were disposed on the ledge of the wheeled chair with careful carelessness, after the Cleopatra model: and Mr. Dombey bowed (Dickens).

12. Then flashed the living lightning from her eyes,

And streams of horror rent the affrighted skies.

Not louder shrieks to pitying heaven are cast,

When husbands or when lap-dogs breathe their last.

(Pope)

Every man has somewhere in the back of his head the wreck of a thing which he calls his education. My book is intended to embody in concise form these remnants of early instruction (Leacock).
I met Mac down in Mexico-Chihuahua City - on New Years’s Eve. He was a breath from home... (Reed).
She looked out of her window one day and gave her heart to the grocer’s young man (O’Henry).

16. Love, free as air, at sight of human ties,

Spreads his light wings, and in a moment flies.

(Pope)

Some books are to be tasted, others swallowed, and some few to be chewed and digested (Bacon).
Della’s beautiful hair fell about her rippling and shining like a cascade of brown waters (O’Henry).
The magi were wise men - wonderfully wise men (O’Henry).
And the fear of death, of God, of the universe, comes over him (London).
«Are you patriotic to the West enough to help me put this thing through the White-washed Wigwam of the Great Father of the most eastern flag station of the Pennsylvania Railroad?» says Bill.

Exercise 2. Compare hyperbole and understatement:

«It must have been that caviar,» he was thinking. «That beastly caviar.» He violently hated caviar. Every sturgeon in the Black Sea was his personal enemy (Huxley).
Calpurnia was all angles and bones; her hand was as wide as a bed slat and twice as hard (Lee).
This boy, headstrong, willful, and disorderly as he is, should not have one penny of my money, or one crust of my bread, or one grasp of my hand, to save him from the loftiest gallows in all Europe (Dickens).
They were under a great shadowy train shed... with passenger cars all about and the train moving at a snail pace (Dreiser).
Her eyes were open, but only just. «Don’t move the tiniest part of an inch» (Salinger).
The little woman, for she was of pocket size, crossed her hands solemnly on her middle (Galsworthy).

Exercise 3. State the type of relations between the object named and the object implied in the following examples of metonymy:

She saw around her, clustered about the white tables, multitude of violently red lips, powdered cheeks, cold, hard eyes, self-possessed arrogant faces, and insolent bosoms (Bennett).
It must not be supposed that stout women of a certain age never seek to seduce the eye and trouble the meditations of man by other than moral charms (Bennett).
For several days he took an hour after his work to make inquiry taking with him some examples of his pen and inks (Dreiser).
The praise... was enthusiastic enough to have delighted any common writer who earns his living by his pen... (Maugham).
He was interested in everybody. His mind was alert, and people asked him to dinner not for old times’ sake, but because he was worth his salt (Maugham).

Exercise 4. Specify the type of transfer of meaning used to create the following figures of quality. State the type of each figure:

It being his habit not to jump or leap, or make an upward spring, at anything in life, but to crawl at every thing (Dickens).
The Face of London was now strangely altered... the voice of Mourning was heard in every street (Defoe).
Then would come six or seven good years when there might be 20 to 25 inches of rain, and the land would shout with grass (Steinbeck).
Stoney smiled the sweet smile of an alligator (Steinbeck).
I have only one good quality - overwhelming belief in the brains and hearts of our nation, our state, our town (Lewis).
At the great doors of the church, through the shady paths of the Plaza, visible and vanishing again at the mouths of dark streets, the silent, sinister figures of black-robed women gathered to wash away their sins (Reed).
He made his way through the perfume and conversation (I.Shaw).
England has two eyes, Oxford and Cambridge. They are the two eyes of England, and two intellectual eyes (Taylor).
Mother Nature always blushes before disrobing (Esar).
The pennies were saved by bulldozing the grocer (O.Henry).
Forty years he had wielded the brush without getting near enough to touch the hem of his Mistress’s robe (O’Henry).
The cold breath of autumn had stricken its leaves from the vine until its skeleton branches clung, almost bare, to the crumbling bricks (O’Henry).

Exercise 5. State the type of each figure of speech in the following examples and specify the functions performed by them:

Mr. Dombey’s cup of satisfaction was so full at this moment, however, that he felt he could afford a drop or two of its contents, even to sprinkle on the dust in the by-path of his little daughter (Dickens).
And the first cab having been fetched from the public house, where he had been smoking his pipe, Mr. Pickwick and his portmanteau were thrown into the vehicle (Dickens).
Once upon a midnight dreary,

While I pondered weak and weary

Over many a quaint and curious volume of forgotten lore...

(E.A.Poe)

I have but one simile, and that’s a blunder,

For wordless woman, which is silent thunder.

(Byron)

Those three words (Dombey and Son) conveyed the one idea of Mr. Dombey’s life. The earth was made for Dombey and Son to trade in, and the son and moon were made to give them light. Rivers and seas were formed to float their ships; rainbows gave them promise of fair weather; winds blew for or against their enterprises; stars and planets circled in their orbits, to preserve inviolate a system of which they were a centre. Common abbreviations took new meanings in his eyes, and had sole reference to them. A.D. had no concern with Anno Domini, but stood for Anno Dombey - and Son (Dickens).
He had taken three weeks off and a ticket to Mentone (Galsworthy).
...They were simply indecent, terrifying, humiliating screams, such as women emit when they see ghosts or caterpillars (O.Henry).
«How crazy!» said Josephine, and she added vehemently, «How utterly insane!..» (Fitzgerald).
I understand you are poor, and wish to earn money by nursing the little boy, my son, who has been so prematurely deprived of what can never be replaced (Dickens).
The gap caused by the fall of the house had changed the aspect of the street as the loss of a tooth changes that of a face.
A stage where every man must play a part (Shakespeare).
By that time the occupant of the monogamistic harem would be in dreamland, the bulbul silenced, and the hour propitious for slumber (O’Henry).
It is always a tremendous task - a mammoth task (O’Henry).
For two years now the bitter contest had gone on (O’Henry).
The words «Ellsworth Spotts, Merchandise» moved slowly downward, like a cannon maneuvering into position (O’Henry).
Jim stopped inside the door, as immovable as a setter at the scent of quail (O’Henry).
Sometimes his ears moved when the stream awoke and whispered (London).
Well, gentlemen, do you know what that devil of a girl did? (Reed).
He was so white around his gills that I hardly knew him - eyes shooting fire like a volcano (Reed).

Exercise 6. Analyze the following abstracts paying special attention to the functions performed by figures of speech:

A dead leaf fell in Soapy’s lap. That was Jack Frost’s card. Jack is kind to the regular denizens of Madison Square, and gives fair warning of his annual call. At the corners of four streets he hands his pasteboard to the North Wind, footman of the mansion of All Outdoors, so that the inhabitants thereof may make ready (O’Henry. The Cop and the Anthem).

On the opposite side of the street was a restaurant of no great pretensions. It catered to large appetites and modest purses. Its crockery and atmosphere were thick; its soup and napery thin. Into this place Soapy took his accusive shoes and telltale trousers without challenge. At a table he sat and consumed beefsteak, flapjacks, doughnuts and pie. And then to the waiter he betrayed the fact that the minutest coin and himself were strangers (O’Henry. The Cop and the Anthem).

In November a cold, unseen stranger, whom the doctors called Pneumonia, stalked about the colony, touching one here and there with his icy fingers. Over on the east side this ravager strode boldly, smiting his victims by scores, but his feet trod slowly through the maze of the narrow and moss-grown «places».

Mr. Pneumonia was not what you would call a chivalric old gentleman. A mite of a little woman with blood thinned by California zephyrs was hardly fair game for the red-fisted, short-breathed old duffer. But Johnsy he smote... (O’Henry. The Last Leaf).
Exercise 7. Analyze the abstract from the short story «Mac-American» by John Reed paying special attention to figures of speech and their functions:
«Speaking of Sport», said Mac, «the greatest sport in the world is hunting niggers. After I left Burlington, you remember, I drifted down South. I was out to see the world from top to bottom, and I had just found out I could scrap. God! The fights I used to get into... Well, anyway, I landed up on a cotton plantation down in Georgia, near a place called Dixville; and they happened to be shy of an overseer, so I stuck.

I remember the night perfectly, because I was sitting in my cabin writing home to my sister. She and I always hit it off, but we couldn’t seem to get along with the rest of the family... Well, as I say, I was siting there writing by the light of a little oil lamp. It was a sticky, hot night, and the window screen was just a squirming mass of bugs. It made me itch all over to see ‘em crawling around. All of a sudden, I picked up my ears, and the hair began to stand right up on my head. It was dogs - bloodhounds - coming licketty-split in the dark. I don’t know whether you fellows ever heard a hound bay when he’s after a human... Any hound baying at night is about the lonesomest, doomingest sound in the world. But this was worse than that. It made you feel like you were standing in the dark, waiting for somebody to strangle you to death - and you couldn’t get away!

For about a minute all I heard was the dogs, and then somebody, or some Thing, fell over my fence, and heavy feet running went right past my window, and a sound of breathing. You know how a stubborn horse breathes when they are choking him around the neck with a rope? That’s way.

I was out on my porch in one jump, just in time to see the dogs scramble over my fence. Then somebody I could see yelled out, so hoarse he couldn’t hardly speak, «Where’d he go?»

«Past the house and out back!» says I, and started to run. There was about twelve of us. I never did find out what that nigger did, and I guess most of the men didn’t either. We didn’t care. We ran like crazy men, through the cotton field, and the woods swampy from floods, swam the river, drove over fences, in a way that would tire out a man ordinarily in a hundred yards. And we never felt it. The spit kept dripping out of my mouth, - that’s was the only thing that bothered me. It was full moon, and every once in a while when we came to an open place somebody would yell, «There he goes!» and we’d think the dogs had made a mistake, and take after a shadow. Always the dogs ahead, baying like bells. Say, did you ever hear a bloodhound when he’s after a human? It’s like a bugle! I broke my shins on twenty fences, and I banged my head on all the trees in Georgia, but I never felt it...»

Mac smacked his lips and drank.

«Of course», he said, «when we got up to him, the dogs had just about torn that coon to pieces».

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М. П. Ивашкин, В. В. Сдобников, А. В. Селяев

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