Учебное пособие для студентов, обучающихся по специальности «История», «Музеология»
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Read and translate the text using a dictionary if necessary:The basic element in the lengthy history of Egyptian civilization is geography. The Nile River rises from the lakes of central Africa as the White Nile and from the mountains of Ethiopia as the Blue Nile. The White and Blue Nile meet at Khartoum and flow together northward to the Nile delta, where the 4000 mile course of this river spills into the Mediterranean Sea. Less than two inches of rain per year falls in the delta and rain is relatively unknown in other parts of Egypt. Most of the land is uninhabitable. These geographical factors have determined the character of Egyptian civilization. People could farm only along the banks of the Nile, where arid sand meets the fertile soil. Of course, each summer the Nile swells as the rains pour down and the snow melts on the mountains. The river overflows its banks and floods the land with fresh water and deposits a thick layer of rich alluvial soil. The land would then yield two harvests before winter. This yearly flood determined more than just the agricultural needs of early Egypt. It also determined the lifecycle of society and helped to create the world view of ancient Egyptian civilization. The basic source of Egyptian history is a list of rulers compiled in c.280 B.C. by Manetho for the Macedonians who ruled Egypt. Manetho divided Egyptian kings into thirty dynasties (a 31st was added later) in the following manner:
Early Egypt was divided into two kingdoms, one in Upper Egypt (Nile Valley), and one in Lower Egypt (Nile delta). Remember, the Nile flows from south to north. Egyptian Dynasties Menes (or Narmer) unified Upper and Lower Egypt and established his capital at Memphis around 3000 B.C.. By the time of the Old Kingdom, the land had been consolidated under the central power of a king, who was also the "owner" of all Egypt. Considered to be divine, he stood above the priests and was the only individual who had direct contact with the gods. The economy was a royal monopoly and so there was no word in Egyptian for "trader." Under the king was a carefully graded hierarchy of officials, ranging from the governors of provinces down through local mayors and tax collectors. The entire system was supported by the work of slaves, peasants and artisans. The Old Kingdom reached its highest stage of development in the Fourth Dynasty. The most tangible symbols of this period of greatness are the three enormous pyramids built as the tombs of kings at Giza between 2600 and 2500. The largest, Khufu (called Cheops by the Greeks), was originally 481 feet high and 756 feet long on each side. Khufu was made up of 2.3 million stone blocks averaging 2.5 tons each. In the 5th century B.C. the Greek historian Herodotus tells us that the pyramid took 100,000 men and twenty years to build. The pyramids are remarkable not only for their technical engineering expertise, but also for what they tell us about royal power at the time. They are evidence that Egyptian kings had enormous wealth as well as the power to concentrate so much energy on a personal project. The priests, an important body within the ruling caste, were a social force working to modify the king's supremacy. Yielding to the demands of the priests of Re, a sun god, kings began to call themselves "sons of Re," adding his name as a suffix to their own. Re was also worshipped in temples that were sometimes larger than the pyramids of later kings. In the Old Kingdom, royal power was absolute. The pharaoh (the term originally meant "great house" or "palace"), governed his kingdom through his family and appointed officials. The lives of the peasants and artisans was carefully regulated: their movement was limited and they were taxed heavily. Luxury accompanied the pharaoh in life and in death and he was raised to an exalted level by his people. The Egyptians worked for the pharaoh and obeyed him because he was a living god on whom the entire fabric of social life depended. No codes of law were needed since the pharaoh was the direct source of all law. The Egyptians also developed a system of writing. Although the idea may have come from Mesopotamia, the script was independent of the cuneiform. Egyptian writing began as pictographic and was later combined with sound signs to produce a difficult and complicated script that the Greeks called hieroglyphics ("sacred carvings"). Though much of what we have today is preserved on wall paintings and carvings, most of Egyptian writing was done with pen and ink on fine paper (papyrus). Ex.1. Answer the following questions:
Ex. 2. Give English equivalents to the following expressions: длинная история Египетской цивилизации плодородная почва список правителей основать столицу королевская монополия огромное благосостояние правящая каста назначать чиновников Ex. 3. Give definitions to the following terms: dynasty hierarchy slave evidence priest tomb Ex. 4. Form adjectives from these nouns: Geography Fertility Agriculture Length Inhabitation Energy Religion Evidence. Ex. 5. Translate from Russian into English:
Ex. 6. Speak about the society in Ancient Egypt using the active vocabulary from the text. Text B Egyptian Religion Read the text without a dictionary and find the answers to the following questions: a) What was the role of the pharaoh in Ancient Egypt? b) Why were animals carefully buried? c) Name the main Egyptian deities. What did they symbolize? Religion was integral to Egyptian life. Religious beliefs formed the basis of Egyptian art, medicine, astronomy, literature and government. The great pyramids were burial tombs for the pharaohs who were revered as gods on earth. Magical utterances pervaded medical practices since disease was attributed to the gods. Astronomy evolved to determine the correct time to perform religious rites and sacrifices. The earliest examples of literature dealt almost entirely with religious themes. The pharaoh was a sacrosanct monarch who served as the intermediary between the gods and man. Justice too, was conceived in religious terms, something bestowed upon man by the creator-god. Finally, the Egyptians developed an ethical code which they believed the gods had approved. J. A. Wilson in his “The Intellectual Adventure of Ancient Man, 1943” once remarked that if one were to ask an ancient Egyptian whether the sky was supported by posts or held up by a god, the Egyptian would answer: "Yes, it is supported by posts or held up by a god or it rests on walls, or it is a cow, or it is a goddess whose arms and feet touch the earth". The ancient Egyptian was ready to accept any and all gods and goddesses that seemed appropriate. For instance, if a new area was incorporated into the Egyptian state, its gods and goddesses would be added to the pantheon of those already worshipped. From its earliest beginnings, Egyptian religious cults included animals. It is no accident that sheep, bulls, gazelles and cats have been found carefully buried and preserved in their own graves. As time passed, the figures of Egyptian gods became human (anthropomorphism) although they often retained the animal's head or body. Osiris, the Egyptian god who judged the dead, first emerged as a local deity of the Nile Delta in Lower Egypt. It was Osiris who taught the Egyptian agriculture. Isis was his wife, and animal-headed Seth, his brother and rival. Seth killed Osiris. Isis persuaded the gods to bring him back to life, but thereafter he ruled below. Osiris was identified with the life-giving, fertilizing power of the Nile, and Isis with the fertile earth of Egypt. Horus, the god of the sky, defeated the evil Seth after a long struggle. But Horus was only one kind of sky god. There was also Re, the sun god, later conjoined with Amen, and still later Aten. The moon god was the baboon-headed Thoth, who was the god of wisdom, magic and numbers. In the great temple cities such as Heliopolis ("city of the sun"), priests worked out and wrote down hierarchies of divinities. In the small communities of villages, all the forces of nature were deified and worshipped. One local god was part crocodile, part hippopotamus, and part lion. Despite the ever-increasing number of deities which could be added to this hierarchy of deities, one thing is certain: Egyptian religion, unlike the religion of Mesopotamia, was centralized. In Sumer, the temple was the focus of political, economic and religious organization. Indeed, it was often difficult to know where one aspect began and another ended. By contrast, the function of an Egyptian temple was focused on religion. Ex. 1. Make up a plan of the text. Ex. 2. Write out the key words of each part. Ex. 3. Write down a summary of the text in English. Ex. 4. Give a written translation of the text in Russian. Lesson 7 Text A The Akkadian Kingdom Answer the following questions: What do you know about Mesopotamia? Who were the Sumerians? What does the concept of “Fertile Crescent” refer to? Study the following proper names: Akkad ['ækæd] – Аккад (древний город в Месопотамии) Akkadian Kingdom [ə'keidiən 'kiŋdəm] – Королевство Аккад An ['a:n] – Ан (шумерский бог неба) Enlil ['e:nlil] – Энлиль, шумерский бог воздуха Nanna ['næ:nə] – Нанна, шумерский бог Луны Sargon of Akkad ['sa:gən əv'ækæd] – Саргон Аккадский (царь Аккада и Шумера, основатель династии Аккаде) Utu [u:tu:] – Уту, шумерский бог Солнца Guess the meaning of the following words and expressions: anthropomorphic ['æntrəupə'mɔ:fik], adj battle ['bætl], n inhabit [in'hæbit], v priest [pri:st], n temple ['templ], n Universe (the) ['ju:nivə:s], n code of ethics [kəudəv'eθiks] permanent communities [['pə:m(ə)nənt kə'mju:niti] semitic-speaking [si'mi:tik 'spikiŋ] Study the following words: assume [ə'sju:m], v – брать на себя, принимать embrace [im'breis], v – принимать, выбирать, пользоваться encounter [in'kauntə], v – встретить, столкнуться, натолкнуться incorporate [in'kɔ: pərət] – объединять, соединять, включать в состав mediator ['mi:dieitə], n - посредник Read the text below using a dictionary if necessary The Sumerians were not the only people to inhabit the Fertile Crescent of Mesopotamia . There were other groups of people who lived in permanent communities and who interacted with the Sumerians in times of peace and in war. By 2350 B.C., Semitic-speaking people united northern Mesopotamia with the Sumerian city-states and a new capital was set up at Akkad. The result was a centralized government under the authority of the king, his royal court, and the high class of priests. The man most responsible for this development is assumed to be Sargon of Akkad. Sargon, whose name is taken to mean "the king is legitimate," carried out more than thirty battles against the Sumerian city-states and eventually, these city-states were incorporated into the Akkadian kingdom. The foundation of the Akkadian state was economic. Sargon and his royal court served as the focal point of all economic activity. At Sumer, this task was assumed by the priests of the temple. Sargon brought vast amounts of wealth to the capital city – he also brought a huge number of royal servants and administrators, thus creating a bureaucratic organization to help rule his kingdom. The Akkadian kingdom, like most Ancient Near Eastern kingdoms, also embraced a polytheistic religion. Their gods were anthropomorphic, that is, the gods took human form. And because the gods took human form, they also had human qualities: the gods could be foolish, intelligent, shy, humorous, jealous, angry or silly. Among themselves, the gods also had unequal status. The gods were derived from the world of nature for the simple reason that life in Mesopotamia was controlled or conditioned by the seasons. Theirs was a world of nature and in order to understand nature, the Mesopotamians gave human shape to the forces of nature. So, we encounter An, the sky god, Enlil, the god of air, Nanna, the moon god and Utu, the sun god. The Mesopotamians believed these gods were responsible for creating the universe and everything it contained, including humankind. The gods were also responsible for the smooth running of that world. The gods ruled the world of men through their earthly representatives, and in the case of the Akkadian kingdom, this meant Sargon. The status of the temple priests at Akkad decreased. Although they still exist, and continue to serve a vital role, the mediator between the gods and ordinary men and women, is now Sargon. Men and women were created by the gods to serve the gods – to feed and clothe them, to honor and obey them. One thing absent from this religion, however, was that the gods did not specify any code of ethics or morality. Issues of good and evil were left to men and women to discover on their own. In the end, the gods gave the inhabitants of these early river civilizations an answer to the basic question – why are we here? what is our role? And the answer was equally simple – to serve the gods. Ex. 1. Answer the following questions: 1) Who besides Sumerians inhabited the Fertile Crescent of Mesopotamia? 2) How was the Akkadian state founded? 3) Who was responsible for the set up of the new capital at Akkad? 4) What kind of religion dominated in the Akkadian kingdom? 5) What role did the gods play in life of the Mesopotamians? 6) Who was the mediator between the gods and ordinary Mesopotamians? 7) What was the underlying idea of the religion adopted by the Mesopotamians? Ex. 2. Arrange the words below into three categories:
Mesopotamia, Sumerian city-states, semitic-speaking people, priests, royal servants, anthropomorphic, polytheistic, mediator, temple, administrators, bureaucratic organization, kingdom, capital city, forces of nature, good and evil, ordinary men and women. Ex. 3. Give your own definitions to the following words: Sargon of Akkad mediator to incorporate illegitimate capital city permanent community bureaucratic organization polytheistic religion Ex.4. Find words from the text that are defined as follows: - a number of individuals living in the same locality and having common ties and interests; - to unite or combine so as to form one body; - one who directs or manages; - having a human form, ascribing human form or attributes to beings or things not human; - material possessions in all their variety, abundance of something; - a clergyman, a person selected to perform sacred functions; - a person, spirit or object, worshipped or adored, to whom supernatural powers are attributed; -a permanent resident, one who inhabits. Ex. 5. Complete the chart with the appropriate forms of the words if possible:
Ex. 6. Translate from Russian into English:
Ex. 7. Divide into two groups – pro and con – to discuss the following point: “Sargon of Akkad: progress or regress for the Akkadian Kingdom?”. Prepare your arguments for and against the ruling of Sargon. Use the active vocabulary from the text. Text B Sargon of Akkad Legendary King of Mesopotamia Read the text without a dictionary and answer the following questions: 1) What legends about the birth and upbringing of Sargon do you know? 2) What kind of state was Sumer before Sargon placed it under his own command? 3) How long did Sargon reign? 4) When was the Akkadian empire suddenly defeated? 5) Who reigned when it happened? Sargon of Akkad reigned from 2334 to 2279 BC, creating an empire that united all of Mesopotamia since the Tower of Babel. He was an Akkadian Semite from the line of Noah's son Shem, like the later Assyrians, Babylonians, and Hebrews. When he conquered the dominant Sumerians, he created the first great Semitic empire. Although Sargon began his life as an orphan adopted by a gardener and not in a royal family, he rose up in power and conquered all the great kings around him. Rebellions surfaced during his life and the life of his sons but did not tear the empire apart until the reign of his grandson. Soon after, the Akkadian empire fell. There are many legends surrounding the birth and upbringing of Sargon, though they probably have varying degrees of truth. When the events from the legends are combined, we see that Sargon’s rise to emperor was a huge accomplishment. While the identity of his father is not clearly known, the legend states that his mother was a temple priestess. Giving birth to him in secret and setting him in a basket to float, she abandoned him to the Euphrates river. Akki, a gardener, rescued him from the river and raised him. After working as a gardener for Akki, Sargon rose to the position of cup-bearer to Ur-Zababa, the king of Kish. One legend tells how Ur-Zababa rose to power, appointed Sargon as cup-bearer, and then attempted to murder him. An and Enlil, Sumerian gods, decided to oppose the reign of Ur-Zababa and to remove his wealth from him. Then, fearful because of a dream that the goddess Inanna would give Sargon his kingdom, Ur-Zababa attempted to murder him. When this attempt failed, Ur-Zababa sent Sargon with a note to Lugalzagesi, king of Uruk, containing instructions to kill Sargon. Here the legend stops, but history continues. Instead of being killed by Lugalzagesi, Sargon later made war against Lugalzagesi’s empire, and became emperor in his place. Before Sargon became emperor, Sumer consisted of many city-state governments. Lugalzagesi, king of Uruk, marched through Sumer and conquered the city-states one by one, uniting all of Sumer under his authority. Sargon began his rise to power by attacking Lugalzagesi and his Sumerian empire. Sargon conquered him, stripping him of kingship and placing all of Sumer under his own command—establishing the first empire to cover all of Mesopotamia. As the kingship of the united Sumer transferred to Sargon, the individual city-states took advantage of the ensuing confusion. They rebelled against Sargon, their new ruler, and forced him to support his claim as king through military might. After his defeat of Lugalzagesi he traveled throughout Sumer conquering one city-state after another. Not content with ruling the land of Sumer and Akkad, he expanded his empire as far as Lebanon and the Taurus mountains of Turkey. He continued to encounter uprisings as city-nations rose up against his authority. Nearly three-thousand years later, the Babylonians will tell of the kings who rose against Sargon, and his rescue by Inanna, the moon goddess (known in the Bible as Ishtar). Later he boasts about his prowess: “In my old age of 55, all the lands revolted against me, and they besieged me in Agade ‘but the old lion still had teeth and claws’ I went forth to battle and defeated them: I knocked them over and destroyed their vast army. ‘Now, any king who wants to call himself my equal, Wherever I went, let him go’!” According to the Sumerian king list and other records, Sargon reigned for fifty-six years, and then the kingship was passed to his son, Rimuc, who battled endless rebellions for nine years. The kingship then passed on to Sargon’s other son, and finally to his grandson, Naram-Suen. During his reign, the empire began to unravel as city-states broke away from the empire. Soon after, a barbaric tribe from the Zagros mountains to the east invaded and conquered the Akkadian empire. Ex. 1. Divide the text into logical parts. Ex. 2. Give a title to each paragraph of the text. Ex. 3. Tell the content of each paragraph in 1-2 sentences. Ex. 4. Summarize the text in brief. Ex. 5. Discuss the question in pairs: How you evaluate the activity of Sargon as a warlord. Lesson 8 Text A |
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