Учебное пособие для студентов, обучающихся по специальности «История», «Музеология»

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Study the following words and expressions:
alluvial, adj [ə′lu:viəl] – аллювиальный, наносный, намывной

dike, n [daik] – 1. дамба, плотина 2. сточная канава, ров

ditch, n [ditʃ] – 1. канава, ров 2. канал: irrigation ditch — оросительный канал

ebb, n [eb] - отлив

engrave, v [in′greiv] – гравировать; резать, вырезать (по камню, дереву, металлу); высекать

fertile, adj [′fɜ:tail] - плодородный

flow, n [fləu] - прилив

hinder, v [′hində] - задерживать, затруднять; мешать, препятствовать (чему-л.)

laborer, n [′leib(ə)rə] - (неквалифицированный) рабочий

merchant, n [′mɜ:tʃ(ə)nt] - купец, торговец

pottery, n [′pɒtəri] – гончарные изделия, керамика; гончарное дело

river bed, n [′rivə bed] – русло реки

surplus, n [′sɜpləs] – избыток, излишек, остаток

unpredictable, adj [ˏʌnpri′diktəbl] - непредсказуемый

wheel-made, adj [′wi:l meid]- сделанный с помощью гончарного круга (potter’s wheel – гончарный круг)

ziggurat, n [′ziguˏræt] (also: zikkurat, zikurat) – зиггурат, зиккурат (ступенчатая культовая башня в архитектуре Древней Месопотамии)
cylinder seal [′silində si:l] – цилиндрическая печать

division of labor [di′viʒən əf ′leibə]- разделение труда

flash flood [′flæʃflʌd] - ливневый паводок, внезапное наводнение

land ownership [′lænd ′əunəʃip] - собственность на землю, земельная собственность

torrential rain [tə′renʃəl]- проливной дождь

Read and translate the text using a dictionary if necessary:

The history and culture of Mesopotamian civilization is inextricably connected to the ebb and flow of the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers. The earliest communities developed to the north but since rainfall in that area was so unpredictable, by 5000 B.C. communities had spread south to the rich alluvial plain. The economy of these communities was primarily agricultural and approximately 100-200 people lived in these permanently established villages. The alluvial plain in southern Mesopotamia ("land between the rivers") was far more fertile than the north but because there was little rainfall, irrigation ditches had to be constructed. Furthermore, the river beds of the Tigris and Euphrates rise and fall with the seasons and they change their course unpredictably. Southern Mesopotamia also had its share of flash floods which could destroy crops, livestock and village homes. Floods and torrential rains were a significant theme in Mesopotamian literature as depicted in the “Epic of Gilgamesh”.

Civilization emerged in Mesopotamia because the soil provided a surplus of food. With this surplus, people could settle down to village life and with these new settlements, towns and cities began to make their appearance, a process known as urbanization. With settlements and a surplus of food came an increase in the population, a well-defined division of labor, organization, cooperation and kingship. The emergence of cities involved interaction between people. Most cities evolved from smaller farming villages and with the practice of irrigation, which was necessary for villages distant from the Tigris and Euphrates, a stable food supply was produced. This, in turn, allowed increases in the number of people who inhabited each settlement.

Because the land closest to the river was the most fertile, there was a variation in terms of the wealth of these early farmers, which led to distinct social classes. At the same time, the construction of canals, ditches and dikes essential to irrigation demanded cooperation between different social groups. Decision-making, regulation and control of all food production and herding meant cooperation. And because more food could be produced by less people, some people gave up farming and became craftsmen, laborers, merchants and officials and this too required cooperation. The Mesopotamians built massive temples or ziggurats which housed the priestly class, the human representatives of the gods. The priests controlled the religious life of the community, the economy, land ownership, the employment of workers as well as the management of long distance trade.

Mesopotamian villages and towns eventually evolved into independent and nearly self-sufficient city-states. Although largely economically dependent on one another, these city-states were independent political entities and retained very strong isolationist tendencies. This isolationism hindered the unification of the Mesopotamian city-states, which eventually grew to twelve in number.

By 3000 B.C., Mesopotamian civilization had made contact with other cultures of the Fertile Crescent (a term first coined by James Breasted in 1916), an extensive trade network connecting Mesopotamia with the rest of Ancient Western Asia. Again, it was the two rivers which served as both trade and transportation routes.

The achievements of Mesopotamian civilization were numerous. Agriculture, thanks to the construction of irrigation ditches, became the primary method of subsistence. Farming was further simplified by the introduction of the plow. We also find the use of wheel-made pottery. Between 3000 and 2900 B.C. craft specialization and industries began to emerge (ceramic pottery, metallurgy and textiles). Evidence for this exists in the careful planning and construction of the monumental buildings such as the temples and ziggurats. During this period (roughly 3000 B.C.), cylinder seals became common. These cylindrical stone seals were five inches in height and engraved with images. These images were reproduced by rolling the cylinder over wet clay. The language of these seals remained unknown until to 20th century. But, scholars now agree that the language of these tablets was Sumerian.

Ex.1. Answer the following questions:

1. 
   What made the earliest communities change their location?
   
2. 
   How did the new place differ from the previous one?
   
3. 
   What caused the process of urbanization?
   
4. 
   What results did the appearance of the first cities bring?
   
5. 
   How did geographical position influence the structure of Mesopotamian society?
   
6. 
   What were the Mesopotamian city-states like?
   
7. 
   How did the Tigris and Euphrates rivers expand the contacts of Mesopotamian people?
   
8. 
   What are the main achievements of Mesopotamian civilization?
   

Ex. 2. Form nouns from these verbs using the suffix -ion:
To predict –

To isolate –

To cultivate -

To unify –
Ex. 3.Explain the difference (if any) between the following words or expressions:

1. 
   the ebb of the river / river bed
   
2. 
   flash flood / torrential rain
   
3. 
   canal / ditch
   
4. 
   craftsman / laborer
   
5. 
   wheel-made pottery / ceramic pottery
   
6. 
   kingship / kinship
   

Ex. 4. Guess what words from the text are meant by these definitions:

1. 
   highly productive; rich; abundant
   
2. 
   a fine-grained fertile soil consisting of mud, silt, and sand deposited by flowing water on flood plains, in river beds, and in estuaries
   
3. 
   an embankment constructed to prevent flooding, keep out the sea, etc
   
4. 
   the position or authority of a king
   
5. 
   a quantity or amount in excess of what is required
   
6. 
   the scientific study of the extraction, refining, alloying, and fabrication of metals and of their structure and properties
   
7. 
   a device impressed on a piece of wax, moist clay, etc. as a mark of authentication.
   

Ex. 5. Translate from Russian into English:

1. 
   Экономика регионов, где находились богатые наносные равнины, была в основном сельскохозяйственной и неразрывно связывалась с приливами и отливами рек Тигр и Евфрат.
   
2. 
   Процесс урбанизации начался благодаря тому, что земля могла производить излишек продуктов, что, в свою очередь, привело к росту населения, четкому разделению труда и организации.
   
3. 
   Появление социальных классов было вызвано более высоким уровнем достатка местных фермеров.
   
4. 
   Четкое взаимодействие требовалось при принятии решений, построении каналов, контроле над производством продукции и при выпасе скота.
   
5. 
   Часть населения отошла от сельскохозяйственной деятельности и обратилась к торговле, ремеслу и религии.
   
6. 
   Класс священнослужителей считался человеческим представителем богов на земле и контролировал религиозную жизнь сообщества.
   
7. 
   Города – государства Месопотамии были практически самодостаточными политическими образованиями.
   
8. 
   Две реки в регионе Плодородного Полумесяца служили торговыми и транспортными путями и образовывали оживленную систему, связывающую Месопотамию с остальной часть Древневосточной Азии.
   
9. 
   Многочисленные достижения цивилизации Месопотамии включали в себя использование плуга в сельском хозяйстве, создание керамической посуды, металлургию, текстиль, строительство храмов и зиггуратов, а также использование цилиндрических печатей.
   

Ex. 6. Make a brief report on one of the following topics:



Text B
Before reading, answer the following questions:

1. 
   How did geography influence the development of Mesopotamian civilization?
   
2. 
   Why do you think ancient civilizations could flourish and then go into decline?
   

Read the following text quickly without a dictionary and choose the best title:
A. The history of Mesopotamian cities

B. The process of irrigation in ancient Mesopotamia

C. Mashkan-shapir – the reason of collapse
Mesopotamia was known as the land between two rivers, the Tigris to the north and the Euphrates to the south. Rains were seasonal in this area, which meant that the land flooded in the winter and spring and water was scarce at other times. (1)___________ In ancient times, many resources in Mesopotamia were scarce or absent, which stimulated trade within the region and beyond. Supported by lucrative trade with its neighbors, Mesopotamia grew to become a powerful empire.

Mashkan-shapir was a typical Mesopotamian city, located about 20 miles from the Tigris River and connected to the river by a network of canals. (2)____________. What could have caused this rapid demise?

Along with factors such as war and changes in the environment, scientists now believe irrigation techniques played an important role in Mashkan-shapir's collapse. The same process that allowed farming in this region also eventually made it impossible to farm. Irrigation has a Catch-22: if irrigation water is allowed to sit on the fields and evaporate, it leaves behind mineral salts; if attempts are made to drain off irrigation water and it flows through the soil too quickly, erosion becomes a problem. Scientists believe that Mashkan-shapir's collapse was caused in part by destruction of the fields by mineral salts. (3)______________.

In Mesopotamia, irrigation was essential for crop production. The rivers were higher than the surrounding plain because of built-up silt in the river beds, so water for irrigation flowed into the fields by gravity. Once the water was on the fields, it could not readily drain away because the fields were lower than the river. (4)_______________. Over time, the soil became toxic and would no longer support crops. By about 2300 B.C., agricultural production in Mesopotamia was reduced to a tiny fraction of what it had been. Many fields were abandoned as essentially useless. Mesopotamian cuneiform tablets tell of crop damage due to salts.
These sentences have been removed from the text. Choose one of the sentences a-d which best fits each gap 1-4.
a. When mineral salts concentrate in the upper levels of the soil, it becomes poisonous for plants.

b. Farming in the region depended on irrigation from the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers.

c. As the water evaporated, it not only left its dissolved mineral salts behind, but also drew salts upward from lower levels of the soil.

d. Despite a flourishing civilization, Mashkan-shapir was abandoned within only 20 years of its settlement.

Ex. 1. Do the following tasks based on the text B:



Ex. 2. Answer the following questions:

1. 
   Do you know other civilizations that flourished and then went to ruin?
   
2. 
   How do the historians tend to explain their collapse?
   

Lesson 4
Text A
Ancient Sumer
Answer the following questions:
When was the system of writing first introduced?

What was the ancient system of writing like?

Why were the gods important for ancient people?
Study the pronunciation of the following proper names:
Sumer [′su:mə] – Шумер (древняя цивилизация в Месопотамии)

Sumerian [su:′miəriən] - Шумерский
Guess the meaning of these words and expressions:
farmland, n [′fa:mˏlænd]

pantheon, n [′pænθiən]

phonetization, n [fəu′netiˏzeʃn]

pictographic, adj [′piktəˏgræfik]

polytheistic religion [ˏpɔliθi′istik]

redistributive economy [ˏri:di′stri:bjutiv]

tablet, n [′tæblit]

urban center [′ɜb(ə)n]

Study the following words and expressions:
character [′kærəktə] - буква, иероглиф; цифра; письмо; знак, символ

circumvent, v [ˏsɜ:kəm′vent] - обмануть, обойти, перехитрить

cuneiform, n [′kju:niˏfɔ:m] - клинопись

deity, n [′deiti] - божество, бог

divination, n [ˏdivi′neiʃ(ə)n] - гадание, ворожба; предсказание

harness, v [′ha:nis] – впрягать, запрягать; укрощать

herdsman, n [′hɜ:dzmən] - пастух, скотник

sacred, adj [′seikrid] - священный; святой

scribe, n [skraib] - писец; переписчик (документов, рукописей)

sign, n [sain] - знак; символ

subservience, n [səb′sɜ:viəns] - подчинение; покорение; угодничество

transaction, n [træn′zækʃ(ə)n] - дело; сделка, соглашение

wedge-shaped, adj [′wedʒʃeipt] - клинообразный, клиновидный
ceremony of dedication [′seriməni əv ˏdedi′keiʃ(ə)n] – церемония посвящения

manual labor [′mænjuəl ′leibə]физический труд; ручной труд

political entity [′entiti] - политическое образование, субъект

reed stylus [′ri:d ′stailəs] – тростниковая палочка, стило

tally of cattle [′tæli ef ′kætl] – учет, подсчет скота

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